TOPICAL DISCU55I 
OF AMERICAN HiSIORV 



TEACHERS' MANUAL AND COURSE 
OF STUDY IN HISTORY AND CIVICS 



W. C, DOUB 




Class ^EzkJlSl 
BookiirL5i_ 
GoppghtN" 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 
AMERICAN HISTORY 

CONSTITUTING A TEACHERS' MANUAL AND 

COURSE OF STUDY IN HISTORY 

AND CIVICS FOR USE IN 

THE ELEMENTART SCHOOLS 



BY 

WILLIAM C. POUB, A. B. 

(Stanford University) 

Ex-Superintendent of Schools for Kern County, California 

Author of '■^Educational ^uestions,'^ "Grammar by the Inducti-ve Method,' 

^''Topical Discussion of Geography, ^^ etc. 




W^t flfllliitaket: a Eap Company 

(incorporated) 
PUBLISHERS 

SAN FRANCISCO 
1905 






stp ^i lyoi) 

OOP> 






Copyright, ig04 

h 

TV. C. Doub 

Copyright, igos 

hy 

W. C. Doub 



PREFACE 

This little volume is a working manual for the teacher and 
constitutes a course in history and civics for the elementary 
schools. Many able educators have been consulted in the prepara- 
tion of this course, and it is believed to be so complete in every 
detail that boards of education can adopt it as the course in his- 
tory and civics without further reference to these subjects in the 
school manual or regular course of study. This course has been 
prepared with especial reference to the regular text-books. Teach- 
ers and pupils frequently complain that the regular or official 
text on history is too difficult, and it is hoped that this course will 
be of great assistance to them in the use of this text. The dis- 
cussions, references and questions in this volume are intended for 
the direct help and assistance of the teacher, the object being to 
reduce the teacher's work to a minimum and to provide at the 
same time a broad and progressive course in history and civics. 
In order to further assist the teacher, a pupil's outline for use in 
connection with this course of study has been prepared and is 
bound under a separate cover. Special attention is directed to 
"Questions for Class Recitations" and "Questions for Composi- 
tions and Examinations," which follow each general topic or 
chapter in the work for the seventh and eighth grades. 

A few years ago it would have been necessary to have accom- 
panied this little volume with an explanatory word regarding 
the nature of the work for which it provides. Happily, that time 
is now passed, for nearly all the better teachers and schools in 
the United States are now doing the work for which the course 
of study herein outlined makes specific provision. The com- 
bining of the work in civics with that on history is one of the 
most valuable features of this course, and a feature which has 
been thoroughly tested in the schools of the East with most satis- 
factory results. 

William C. Doub. 

San Francisco, August i, 1905. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PREFACE 3 

BOOKS II 

HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER GRADES 15 

Third Year Grade 17 

Fourth Year Grade 20 

Fifth Year Grade 21 

Sixth Year Grade 22 

INTRODUCTORY 25 

Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America 27 

Ancient Ideas of the World 27 

False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of CiviHzation 27 

Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration 28 

Conditions Leading to Exploration 29 

Discoveries and Explorations 31 

Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 31 

EngHsh Discoveries and Explorations 31 

French Discoveries and Explorations 31 

Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 31 

Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 32 

Disposition of Territory in the New World 32 

Decline of Spanish Powder 32 

Spain's Eearly Supremacy on the Sea 32 

Defeat of the Spanish Armada 33 

The American Indian 34 

Origin of Name 34 

Classification According to Civilization 34 

Appearance and Manner of Living 35 

Character 36 

THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 39 

Origin, Growth and Political History 44 

Virginia 44 

Maryland 46 

North and South Carolina 47 

Georgia 48 

Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colonies 49 

Connecticut and New Haven 51 

Rhode Island 51 



6 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

New Hampshire and Maine 51 

New York 59 

New Jersey 60 

Delaware 61 

Pennsylvania 61 

The French in North America 68 

French Explorations and Settlements 70 

Contrast of French and English Settlements 70 

Relations of the French with the Indians 71 

Early Conflict between the French and the English 71 

The French and Indian War 72 

Institutional Life in the Colonies "]•] 

Industrial Conditions 86 

Social Conditions 93 

Government 102 

Religion : Growth of Religious Liberty 113 

Education 117 

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 130 

American Institutions: Changes in. and from where Derived. .. 131 

Government in England 131 

Transfer of English Rights and Institutions to America 134 

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 136 

Causes and Beginnings 138 

Causes of the Revolution 138 

The Beginnings of the Revolution 141 

Campaigns 144 

The Campaign to Separate New England from the Other States, 

and the Campaign against Philadelphia and the Middle States 145 

Campaign against the Southern Colonies 147 

Results of the War 148 

THE CRITICAL PERIOD 155 

The Nature of the National Government 157 

The Northwest Territory 158 

Conditions of Money and Business 159 

Anarchy and Rebellion 160 

The Constitutional Convention 160 

The Constitution 163 

Organization of the New Government 165 

NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE. .. . 168 

The Period of European Interference 174 

Origin of American Neutrality in European Affairs 174 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 

The Jay Treaty 175 

Breach with France 176 

The Alien and Sedition Acts 176 

The Virginia and Kentucky Resohitions 177 

The Purchase of Louisiana 177 

European Interference with American Commerce 178 

The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Independence 179 

The Hartford Convention 182 

The Purchase of Florida 182 

The Monroe Doctrine 183 

Financial Legislation : the Tariff 184 

Hamilton's Financial Measures 184 

Jefferson and Gallatin's Financial Policy 185 

The National Bank and State Banks 186 

Tariff Legislation 186 

Political Parties 187 

Rise of Political Parties 187 

Fall of the Federalist Party 188 

The Republican Party 189 

Growth of the Nation 190 

Growth in Territory and Population 190 

Movement of Population 190 

Results of Westward Expansion 191 

Growth of National Unity 194 

Institutional Life 195 

Industrial Conditions 196 

Social Conditions 198 

Government 199 

Religion 200 

Education 200 

WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 209 

Political Methods and Political Parties 213 

Meaning of Jackson's Election 213 

Political Methods 213 

Political Parties 215 

Financial Legislation : the Tariff 217 

The Tariff 217 

Destruction of the National Bank 218 

The Panic of 1837 219 

The Independent or Sub-Treasury System 221 

Growth of the Nation in Territory and Population 221 

The Oregon Territory 221 



8 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Annexation of Texas 221 

The Mexican War 222 

The Slavery Question 223 

The Abolition Movement 223 

Expansion of Slave Territory ; The Compromise of 1850 225 

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill 226 

The Struggle for Kansas 227 

The Dred Scott Decision 227 

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 228 

The Election of Lincoln 228 

Institutional Life 229 

Industrial Conditions 229 

Social Conditions 231 

Government 232 

Religion 232 

Education 233 

THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 243 

Comparative Resources of the North and the South 247 

Available Soldiers, Commanders and Military Supplies 247 

Financial Resources, Facilities for Transportation 247 

Secession and Beginnings 248 

The Right of Secession 248 

Secession 249 

The Fall of Fort Sumter 249 

The Battle of Bull Run 249 

Campaigns 250 

Scope and Nature of Campaigns ; Method of Treatment 250 

The Eastern Campaign 250 

The Western Campaign 252 

The Campaigns of 1864-1865 254 

The Work of the Navy in the Civil War 255 

Blockade of the Southern Ports 255 

Commerce Destroyers 256 

The Revolution in Naval Warfare 256 

Results 257 

RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION.... 262 

Reconstruction of the Seceded States 267 

Relation of the Seceded States to the National Government 267 

Death of Lincoln : His Character and Ability 267 

Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson 268 

Reconstruction Policy of Congress 268 

Some Results of Reconstruction .' 270 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 9 

Political Methods and Political Parties 270 

Political Methods 270 

Political Parties 271 

Financial and Industrial Legisation 272 

Financial Legislation 272 

Tariff Legislation 274 

Industrial Combinations 275 

Foreign Relations 277 

Purchase of Alaska 277 

Treaty of Washington 277 

Application of the Monroe Doctrine 277 

Growth of Arbitration 27(S 

The Spanish-American War 279 

Isthmian Canal 282 

Institutional Life 282 

Industrial Conditions 283 

Social Conditions 287 

Education 288 



BOOKS 

I BOOKS FOR PUPILS 

1. Fiftli Year Grade 

McMurry — Pioneers on Land and Sea 

2. Sixth Year Grade 

The official Primary History Text on American History 
McMurry — Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley 

Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the 
West 

3. Seventh and Eighth Year Grades 

(a) The official Grammar School Text on American 

History 

(b) Doub — Pupil's Outline in American History 

This Outline need not be used if the pupil 
has a copy of Doub's grammar school history 
of the LTnited States. 

(c) Hart — Source Readers of American History 

These readers are for supplementary use — 
Numbers i and 2 are to be used in the seventh 
year grade, and numbers 3 and 4 in the eighth 
year grade. 

The Hart Source Readers and McMurry's Pioneer History 
Stories may be purchased by the pupil or with school funds. 
All these books will be of distinct value to the pupil in his 
school work, and most parents, therefore, will desire that 
their children own them. Hart's Source Readers are of 
especial value. There are four of these readers, — "Colonial 
Children," "Camps and Firesides of the Revolution," "How 
Our Grandfathers Lived," and "Romance of the Civil War." 
The material in each reader consists entirely of the writings 
of the men and women who lived during the period of which 
that reader treats. This enables the pupil, at least to some 



12 BOOKS 

extent, to see things and to feel about things that took place 
then, as these men and women saw and felt. In order to 
have the material in these readers better suited to grammar 
school work, the spelling and language of some of the selec- 
tions have been slightly changed but in every case the 
thought has been retained. It is strongly urged that "Col- 
onial Children" and "Camps and Firesides of the Revolution" 
be read in connection with the seventh-grade work, and that 
"How Our Grandfathers Lived" and "Romance of the Civil 
War" be read in connection with the eighth-grade work. It 
is suggested that these four readers be made a part of the 
subject-matter of the regular reading course for these two 
grades. Pupils find these books as interesting as novels. 

The Pupil's Outline in American History has been pre- 
pared for use in connection with this Manual, and contains 
the same topics, questions and references. The pupil need 
not have a copy of the Outline, however, if he has a copy of 
Doub's History of the United States because the latter con- 
tains these same topics and questions and gives an ample 
discussion of each topic. 

II BOOKS FOR GENERAL READING AND REFER- 
ENCE 

1. FiftJi Year Grade 

Books and material on English, state and local history 
(see suggestions under Fifth Year Grade, page 21). 

2. Sixth Year Grade 

Books and material on the history of the United 
States (see suggestions under Sixth Year Grade, 
page 22). 

3. Seventh and Eighth Year Grades 

Specific references are given to Doub, McMaster. 
Mace, Gordy, Thomas, and Montgomery. If the teacher 
desire she can easily cite references to any other text. 
There should be enough copies of these books in the 



BOOKS 13 

library for reading and ready reference, but if Doub's 
grammar school history of the United States is in the 
hands of the pupil, no other text need be used for ref- 
erence. There should be in each library, however, books 
and material of a more general nature, such as the 
American History Leaflets, Old South Leaflets, Elson's 
Side Lights on American History, and a number of the 
books designated below for the use of teachers. The 
teacher should secure for the library much of this ma- 
terial and should give special directions regarding its 
use in connection with the various topics. 

HI BOOKS FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS 

Doub's Topical Discussion of American History is to be 
used by the teacher as a manual and course of study in his- 
tory and civics. Even when his history of the United States 
is being used as the regular text, this Topical Discussion is 
designed to be of much value to the busy teacher in preparing 
for the recitation. Those teachers wishing to make fuller 
preparation should have access to a text like Channing's 
Students' History of the United States and such of the fol- 
lowing as may be available : Elson's History of the LTnited 
States ; the L^nited States in the Cambridge Modern His- 
tory Series, A^olume VH ; Lodge's Short History of the 
English Colonies in America ; and Fiske's Discovery of 
America, Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, The Beginnings 
of New England, New France and New England, The Amer- 
ican Revolution, and the Critical Period of American His- 
tory. If possible, a copy of each of these books should be 
in the school library and should be purchased with school 
funds. Most of the books here designated for the use of 
the teacher will be read and studied with interest by more 
than half the pupils in the seventh and eighth grades, and 
especially is this true of the Fiske books. 



14 BOOKS 

IV ABBREVIATIONS USED IN CITING REFERENCES 

D. Doub's History of the United States 

H. I Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. i 

H. II Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 2 

H. Ill Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 3 

H. IV Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 4 

Mc. McMaster's School History of the United States 

Ma. Mace's School History of the United States 

G. Gordy's History of the United States 

T. Thomas' History of the United States 

M. Montgomery's History of the United States 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 

IN THE 

LOWER GRADES 



HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER 
GRADES 

This outline of work for the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth year 
grades has no direct connection with the other subject-matter of 
this manual. This manual on American history has been pre- 
pared on the supposition that the pupil, when he begins the sev- 
enth-year work, has made no previous study of history and civics. 
It is generally recognized, however, that it is most desirable to 
give history and civics a place in the lower grades. This outline 
has been prepared for the specific purpose of meeting this demand. 
It is hoped that the plan of work which follows will prove sug- 
gestive and valuable to those progressive teachers and schools 
that desire to give history and civics their proper places in the 
intermediate grades. The main object for doing this work in 
the lower grades is to reenforce the work along other lines ; to 
give the pupil some preparation for the formal study of these 
subjects in the higher grades ; and to give those pupils who must 
leave school before they reach the more advanced grammar grades 
some knowledge of American history. The plan as outlined 
below makes most of this work a part of the work on the other 
subjects. As arranged, the elementary work on history and civics 
constitutes much of the language work, and provides much ex- 
cellent material for the pupil's general reading. This correlation 
economizes the time of the teacher and pupil, and tends to pre- 
vent an overcrowding of the course of study. 

THIRD-YEAR GRADE 

All the work here outlined for the third grade is to be pre- 
sented orally by the teacher. After the teacher has presented the 
topic of the month in story form, different pupils should be re- 
quired to stand and retell the story. Either before or after this 
oral retelling of the story by different members of the class, a 
pupil should be required to pass to the blackboard and write the 
story as the class reconstructs it. This constitutes the best pos- 



18 . HISTORY AND CIVICS 

sible work on language, and usually secures the active interest 
and co-operation of every pupil. Under the sym])athetic guidance 
of the teacher, each pupil, by actual practice, is learning how to 
use capitals and the simpler marks of punctuation ; he is learning 
something about the use and selection of words, and about para- 
graphing and other principles of language construction. As the 
])upils reconstruct the story for the pupil at the board, they should 
be led by the teacher to discuss and to apply these simpler prin- 
ciples of constructive grammar, and to learn new ones- as the com- 
plexity of their language requires their use. After the different 
pupils have retold the story orally, and after the class has recon- 
structed it on the board as indicated above, each pupil should be 
required to reproduce it in the form of a composition, and nothing 
but his best work should be accepted by the teacher. From the 
standpoint of language, the work on one history story is of much 
more value to the pupil than would be a dozen lessons like those 
contained in the average language book. This work on the history 
stories, together with similar work on literature stories, and on 
original compositions on other subjects, should constitute nearly 
all the language work in the first six grades of the elementary 
schools, and a large part of that work in the seventh and eighth 
grades. 

In presenting the history work of each month, the teacher 
should weave it into story form and make it just as interesting 
as possible. It should always be borne in mind, however, that 
the stories or talks of the teacher on each topic should be true 
to historical fact. The talks on the topics of the first and second 
months — Government in the Home and Government in the School 
— should impress on the pupil the necessity and object of govern- 
ment. It may be rather difficult to present these two topics in 
story form, but the work on civics sliould begin with the child's 
personal environment. In the fourth grade the work on civics 
deals with city, county, and district government, and in the fifth 
grade with state government. The work on civics in these three 
grades should give the pupil a general idea of local and state 
government, and prepare him for the more formal studv of gov- 
ernment in the seventh and eighth grades. The other topics of 



hi the Lozi'cr Grades 19 

this grade can be presented easily in story form of the most 
interesting nature. The pupil will be deeply interested in the 
origin of Thanksgiving and the conditions under which the Pil- 
grims ate the first Thanksgiving dinner. The topic of the fourth 
month, the Story of Christmas, can be presented in story form 
along the same general lines. The boyhood of Washington, 
Franklin, Lincoln, and Grant can be made most interesting to 
children in story form, and will introduce them to the most inter- 
esting periods of our history. 

FIRST MONTH 
Talks on Government in the Home 

SECOND MONTH 

Talks on Government in the Schools 



Thanksgiving. 



Christmas 



THIRD MONTH 



FOURTH MONTH 



FIFTH MONTH 
Boyhood of Washington 

SIXTH MONTH 
Boyhood of Franklin 

SEVENTH MONTH 
Boyhood of Lincoln. 

EIGHTH MONTH 

Bovhood of Grant 



20 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

FOURTH-YEAR GRADE 

In studying" the topic of the first month, the pupils will be very 
much interested in talking with their parents and others about 
the life and hardships of the early settlers of the neighborhood 
and county. They should be encouraged to secure all the informa- 
tion possible in order that they may become fairly familiar with 
the early history of their county and city. The topics of the sec- 
ond month, Local Government, should receive careful considera- 
tion. The pupils should secure a good idea of the government 
of the school district and city. They should learn how 
school districts are formed; how school trustees and members of 
city boards of education are elected ; how teachers are elected ; 
the object for maintaining schools ; and why parents are so willing 
to be taxed for the support of the public school system. From 
this month's work the pupil should also learn about county and 
city government. He should learn how county and city officers 
are elected, and the general duties of the same. Some of the 
pupils will no doubt be acquainted with some of the county and 
city officials, and this personal element should be emphasized as 
much as possible. It is not supposed, of course, that the pupils 
will secure a thorough knowledge of local government from this 
month's work, but they should secure a general idea of the same 
and should have created in them a desire to learn more about 
the government of the school district, county, and city. The his- 
tory work of the other six months of this grade is to be presented 
as indicated by the suggestions on the third-grade work. 

FIRST MONTH 
Early History of the Neighborhood and County 

SECOND MONTH 
Local Government 

THIRD MONTH 
Columbus 

FOURTH MONTH 
Sir Walter Raleigh 



In the Lozver Grades 21 

FIFTH MONTH 
Captain John Smith 

SIXTH MONTH 

Miles Standish 

SEVENTH MONTH 
William Penn 

EIGHTH MONTH 
Daniel Boone 

FIFTH-YEAR GRADE 

The history work for this grade should deal with English 
liistor} and with the histor\- of the state in which the pupil lives. 
An interesting hook on each of these subjects should be selected. 
It may be difhcult in some cases to find a suitable book for the 
work on state history, but there are a number of books on English 
history that have been prepared especially for intermediate grade 
work. The one selected should cover the subject judiciouslv and 
should be true to historical fact. McMurry's Pioneers on Land 
and Sea may be read in addition to or in place of these stories in 
English history. These books should be made a part of the 
subject-matter of the regular reading course. The treatment of the 
subject-matter of the books selected should be in accordance with 
the suggestions on the work of the third grade, and should be 
made to constitute an important part of the pupil's language v^'ork. 
During one month of this grade the government of the state in 
which the pupil lives should receive careful consideration. From 
the time devoted to this subject the pupil should understand the 
object of state government and the reasons for dividing it into 
the legislative, executive, and judicial departments. He should 
learn the official titles of the different state officers, how they are 
elected, and the general powers and duties of each. 



22 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

SIXTH-YEAR GRADE 

The history work of this grade should be of such a nature as 
to give the pupil valuable knowledge of the early history of the 
nation, and to create in him a desire to read history. This is 
deemed very important because many pupils never attend school 
after this grade. The work of the sixth year should also lay a 
good foundation for the formal study of history in the seventh 
and eighth years. Of all the books now in print, McMurry's 
" Pioneer History Stories " seem to be distinctly the best for 
securing these results. There are three volumes of these stories : 
" Pioneers on Land and Sea," " Pioneers of the Mississippi Val- 
ley," and " Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West." As 
indicated in the Fifth Grade work it is perhaps better to have 
the first book of this series read in the Fifth Year. While these 
three volumes are as interesting as a novel, they are true to his- 
torical fact, which is of great importance. It is recommended that 
these books be made a part of the subject-matter for the regular 
reading course, but that the topics be treated in accordance with 
the suggestions on the work of the third grade. These books 
make excellent subject-matter for the regular reading course, and 
this correlation tends to check the all too prevalent habit of 
crowding too much work into the elementary schools. If in addi- 
tion to reading these " Pioneer History Stories " a more formal 
study of history be desired in this grade, some good primary text 
on the subject should be used. 



SEVENTH YEAR WORK 



INTRODUCTORY 

A CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY 
OF AMERICA 

(By way of general reference for this chapter, each pupil should 
read the first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 1-53.) 

I Ancient Ideas of the World 

D. 2; M. 1-2 

II False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of 

Civilization 
D. 2-3 

III Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration 

D.3-5 

IV Conditions Leading to Exploration 

1. Increasing Importance of Commerce 

D. 5-6; Mc. 9-10; Ma. 2-3; G. 1-2 

2. Need of New Trade Routes 

D. 6-8; Mc. lo-ii; Ma. 4; T. 7-9; M. 4-9 

B DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

I Spanish Disconkries and Explorations 

D. 8-14; H. I. 4-6; 10-19; Mc. 11-14, 17-22 ; Ma. 6-16; 
G. 2-6, 8, 12-17; T. 7-16; M. 14-18; 23-27, 28-31 

IT En(;lish Dlscoveries and Explorations 

D. 14-16; H. I. 7-8, 23-25; Mc. 14, 26-29; Ma. 13, 
17-21 ; G. 6-7, 19-24: T. II, 14-16; M. 18-20, 33-38 

ill I'^KKNCH Discoveries and Explorations 

D. 16-19; Mc. 26-29; Ma. 16-17; G. 89-94; T. 16-17; 
M. 27-28, 31-33 



26 INTRODUCTORY 

IV Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 

D. 19; H. I. 10; Mc. 26-29; Ma. 4-5; G. 7-8; T. 12; 
M. 20-22 

V" Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 

D. 19; Mc. 36-39; G. 64-68; T. 22-23; M. 67-69 

C DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW 
WORLD 

D. 19-21 

D DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER 

I Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea 

D. 21-22 

II Defeat of the Spanish Armada 

D. 22-23 

E the AMERICAN INDIAN 

I Origin of Name 

D. 24; Mc. 66; Ma. 21 ; T. 11 ; M. 15 

II Classification According to Civilization 

D. 24-26 ; Mc. 68 ; Ma. 24 ; G. 76-77 ; T. 4-6 
f. Savage Indians 

2. Barbarous Indians 

3. Half-Civilized Indians 

III Appearance and INTanner of Living 

D. 27-28; H. I. 95-97, 116-119, 121-T25; H. it. 
72-76; Mc. 66-68; Ma. 23-24; G. 78-85; T. 1-4; 
M. 40-44 

IV Character 

D. 28-29; H. I. 113-114, 116-T19; Mc. 69-70; Ma. 
22-23; G. yy; M. 45-46 



INTRODUCTORY 

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF 

AMERICA 

I Ancient Ideas Concerning the World 

Although the New World has existed and has been inhab- 
ited by mankind and by the lower animals for many thou- 
sands of years, it was totally unknown to the people of the 
Old World until a little more than four hundred years ago. 
For more than six thousand years the people of Europe 
believed that the earth was flat, and that it was covered with 
water except that part occupied by Europe, Asia, and Africa. 
They had no idea that North America, South America, and 
Australia existed. They did not even know how large Asia 
and Africa were. Some of them were acquainted with west- 
ern Asia and northern Africa, but they did not know how 
far these continents extended. Marco Polo and a few others 
had visited China and had heard of Japan, but this was all 
that the people of Europe knew of eastern Asia, and they 
knew still less about southern Africa. Although great civil- 
ized nations had existed around the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea for probably more than six thousand years, the 
people of these nations thought that the earth was many 
times smaller than it is. They believed that there was noth- 
ing but darkness and terrors beyond the small part which 
they knew about, and that evil spirits and great monsters 
would destroy any one who ventured into this unknown space. 

II False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of Civili- 

zation 

This wrong idea which the people of Europe had for so 
many thousand years, regarding the extent of the land and 
the shape of the earth, was not due to lack of a high state of 



28 INTRODUCTORY 

civilization. The people of Greece more than twenty-three 
hundred years ago and the people of Rome more than two 
thousand years ago were much better educated than were the 
people of Europe four hundred years ago, when Columbus 
discovered the New World. The civilizations which these 
ancient Greeks and Romans produced excelled in many ways 
the civilization which existed in Europe during the time of 
Columbus. The literature, the sculpture and the fine, noble 
buildings produced by them have never yet been excelled, and 
in some things along these lines we cannot do as well as was 
done in ancient Greece and Rome. 

Ill Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration 

While the people of Europe at the time the New World 
was discovered were not so intelligent along many lines as 
were the Greeks and Romans, they lived under conditions 
which would cause them to think more about the extent of 
the land and the shape of the earth, and hence they would 
naturally have a greater desire to find out the truth about 
these matters. The Greeks and Romans occupied the penin- 
sulas of Italy and Greece, which together are not so large 
as the state of Texas, and less than one-twenty-seventh as 
large as the lest of Europe. Half-civilized people lived in all 
the other parts of Europe except those parts conquered by 
Rome. The Greeks and Romans were kept busy defending 
themselves against these people and were finally compelled to 
submit to them. They had all they could do to learn about 
Europe and the other continents around the Mediterranean 
Sea, without trying to explore the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans, and they seem to have had no desire to do so. Aris- 
totle, a Greek philosopher who lived twenty-two hundred 
years ago, believed that the earth was round and that eastern 
Asia could be reached by sailing west from western Europe. 
Some other philosophers who lived between the time of 
Aristotle and the discovery of America had the same idea, 
but the people of Greece and Rome, and later those in the 



Conditions Favorable to tlie Discovery of America 29 

rest of Europe, were too busy with the affairs and conditions 
in the Old World to think seriously about these ideas, or to 
attempt to put them into practice by sailing west out over the 
Atlantic Ocean. 

V Conditions Leading to Exploration 

It was quite different a little more than four hundred years 
ago when the New World was discovered. More people 
lived in Europe then than ever before, and through natural 
advancement and the influence of Greek and Roman laws, 
literature, and ideas, all Europe had become civilized. Hav- 
ing occupied all of Europe, having become more intelligent 
and progressive, it is but natural that many of the practical 
and educated men of Europe, as well as the philosophers, 
should ask themselves the question — what lies beyond the 
water? This desire to know more about the size and shape 
of the earth, together with the improvement in shipbuilding 
and the practical use of the compass for the purpose of navi- 
gation, would soon have led to the exploration of the Atlantic 
and Pacific oceans and to the discovery of America, even if 
the condition of commerce, which is discussed below, had not 
made the business men of Europe extremely anxious to se- 
cure some new way by which they could reach the rich 
products of India and eastern Asia. 

I. Increasing Importance of Commerce 

The Greeks and Romans traded a great deal with the 
people of Asia, but when the Roman Empire was destroyed 
about fourteen hundred years ago by the half-civilized peo- 
ple of central Europe, this commerce was almost ruined. 
During the seven hundred years from the time of the fall 
of the Roman Empire (476 A. D.) to 1200 A. D., Europe 
traded very little with Asia, the people of Europe being 
only half-civilized. About six hundred years ago the people 
of Europe had become settled in well organized govern- 
ments, were becoming better civilized and educated, and 



30 INTRODUCTORY 

were becoming better acquainted with Asia and the things 
produced there. The merchants of Europe began to trade 
the woods, metals and other things which it produced to 
the people of Asia for the spices, pearls, silk, gems and 
other things which they produced. By 1400 A. D. this 
trade had increased until it constituted a great commerce 
or interchange of products between the peoples of Europe 
and Asia. Great commercial cities grew up, whose pros- 
perity depended largely on this commerce. Venice and 
Genoa were two of the most important of these cities, and 
their merchants carried on an immense trade with Asia. 
From the commercial cities on the coast, the rich products 
of Asia were sent inland to the different parts of Europe, 
and naturally there was an increasing demand for these 
comforts and luxuries. 

2. Need of Nezv Trade Routes 

The goods which Europe sent to Asia and which Asia 
sent to Europe had to be carried by ships and by caravans 
over one of three routes. These routes were by way of the 
Black and Caspian seas and thence overland to India ; 
across Syria to the Persian Gulf and thence by ship to In- 
dia ; and by way of Egypt to the Red sea and thence by ship 
to India. Now it so happened that the Turks, during the 
time that this trade between Europe and Asia was increas- 
ing, were gradually over-running the western part of Asia, 
which included the territory over which these trade routes 
passed. The Turks made it a regular business to capture 
the caravans conveying these goods and to murder those 
in charge. By 1490 A. D. they had almost destroyed the 
great commerce between Asia and Europe. It became 
necessary to give up this trade or to find some new route 
over which the goods might be conveyed. This caused the 
merchants and sailors of Europe to give the question of 
finding a new route serious consideration. Some main- 
tained that if the earth were round, eastern Asia could be 



Discoveries and Explorations 31 

reached by sailing west from Europe. Among this num- 
ber was Christopher Cokimbus. On the third day of 
August, 1492, he sailed from Palos, Spain, with three 
small ships and ninety men to test the correctness of this 
theory. Other men had talked and philosophized about the 
earth being round, but Columbus was the first to test a 
scientific theory by bidding good-by to the known world, 
sailing out into the unknown seas and facing the terrors 
which superstition for ages had planted in the mind of 
man. It was an act as brave as history records. The track- 
less ocean was his highway ; faith in a scientific theory his 
guiding star. 

DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

I Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 

The Spanish people discovered and explored most of the 
West Indian Islands, Florida, the southwestern part of the 
United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America, 
except Brazil. The principal Spanish explorers whose work 
had direct relation to the United States or to determining the 
extent and shape of the earth were Columbus, Ponce de 
Leon, Balboa, Magellan and De Soto. 

II English Discoveries and Explorations 

The English discovered and explored the eastern part of 
North America from Florida to Canada. The principal Eng- 
lish explorers were the Cabots, Drake, Gilbert and Raleigh. 

III French Discoveries and Explorations 

The French explored the larger part of the Mississippi 
Valley and the eastern part of Canada, including the region 
of the Great Lakes. The principal French explorers were 
Cartier, Champlain, Marquette, Joliet and La Salle. 

IV Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 

The Portuguese made no explorations in North America, 
but Americus Vespucius, while in the employ of the King 
of Portugal, explored the coast of Brazil in South America. 



32 INTRODUCTORY 

V Dutch Disco\'i>:ries and Explorations 

Holland explored and settled the present state of New 
York. Henry Hudson was the principal explorer, 

DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD 

It was customary for the captain of a ship or the commander 
of a fleet when he discovered land in the New World, to take 
possession of it in the name of his sovereign. Thus the nations of 
Europe based their claims to territory on the "right of discovery." 
It was on this so-called right that Spain claimed most of the West 
Indies, all of South America except Brazil, Central America, 
Mexico, Florida, and the Southwestern part of the United States ; 
England, the Atlantic Coast from Canada to Florida ; France, all 
the territory drained by the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence and 
their tributaries; Holland, New York; and Portugal, Brazil. 
England granted her territory in North America to companies 
and to individuals, and established some crown colonies, which 
were under the direct control of the sovereign. Many of these 
grants made by the English sovereigns were described as extend- 
ing from "sea to sea," that is from the Atlantic to the Pacific. As 
these grants did not always extend due east and west, they fre- 
quently overlapped, and in after years caused considerable trouble 
owing to conflicting claims. 

DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER 

I Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea 

For more than eighty years after the discovery of America, 
Spain was the most powerful nation of the world. She was 
practically mistress of the seas, having a larger navy than 
any other nation. This gave her an immense advantage in 
securing lands and forming settlements in the New World. 
So long as she was stronger on the seas than any other na- 
tion, she could control, to a large extent, the development of 
America. She had secured far more of this new territory than 
any other nation. She was obtaining a large amount of 
money from the mines of Mexico and Peru. All this tended 
to increase her influence in both Europe and Asia. 



Decline of Spanish Power 33 

II Defeat of the Spanish Armada 

But Spain was soon to lose this proud leadership among 
the nations of the world. England sent an army to assist 
Holland in its attempt to regain independence from Spain. 
Sir Francis Drake and other bold English sea captains cap- 
tured the Spanish treasure ships which were on their way 
from Mexico and Peru. They even sailed into the Spanish 
harbors and destroyed vessels in sight of the people. Drake 
called these acts "singeing the King of Spain's beard.'' 
These acts so enraged the Spanish King, Phillip II, that he 
determined to invade England and annex it to his kingdom. 
In 1588 he collected a fleet of about one hundred and fifty 
ships which carried more than three thousand cannon. This 
fleet was considered so powerful that it was called the In- 
vincible Armada. It was thought by many military men on 
the continent of Europe that England would be conquered. 
The English people were thoroughly aroused, but they were 
not frightened. They were putting forth every effort to col- 
lect a fleet with which to meet the Armada. The English 
navy contained but thirty-eight ships, and most of these were 
small and poorly equipped. But the merchants gave their 
ships freely for the purpose of defense, and a fleet was col- 
lected though it was small as compared with the Spanish fleet. 
Lord Effingham, Drake, Hawkins and other English sea cap- 
tains were placed in command. No greater sea fighters than 
some of these men ever lived. The Spanish commanders did 
not compare with them in ability. When the Invincible 
Armada entered the English channel, the English fleet did 
not make a direct attack, but hung on its flanks, destroying- 
ship after ship, and in a long running fight drove the Armada 
through the channel into the North Sea. The defeated 
Spaniards could not return to Spain through the English 
Channel, and were forced to sail around the north of Scot- 
land where storms destroyed so many of their ships that not 
more than one-third of them finally reached Spain. This 
crushing defeat of the Invincible Armada had a most im- 
portant bearing on the history of the New World. It marked 



34 INTRODUCTORY 

the beginning of Spain's decline on both land and sea. She 
has been growing weaker ever since. It also marks the be- 
ginning of England as a sea power. She soon became mis- 
tress of the seas and has since held this position. All this 
meant that England and not Spain should have most to do in 
shaping the growth of America. Erom this time on Erance 
was England's only serious competitor in colonizing North 
America. 

THE AMERICAN INDIAN 

I Origin of Name 

When Columbus discovered the New World he thought it 
a part of Asia. He thought the islands a part of the East 
Indies, and accordingly called the inhabitants Indians. The 
name was afterwards applied to all the native inhabitants of 
America. 

II Classification According to Civilization 

1. Savage Indians 

The savage Indians lived in North America. They oc- 
cupied Alaska, all the Rocky Mountain region except part 
of Arizona and New Mexico, all the territory west of these 
mountains, and the territory in the north between Hudson 
Bay and the Pacific ocean. They were divided into several 
tribes, among the more important being the Apache. 

2. Barbarous Indians 

The barbarous Indians also lived in North America. In 
the United States they occupied all the country 
east of the Rocky Mountains, and in Canada all the country 
south and east of Hudson Bay. The only Indians who had 
any real influence on the history of the United States oc- 
cupied the territory between the Mississippi River and the 
Atlantic Ocean. They are divided into three general di- 
visions or races, Maskoki, Iroquois and Algonquin. Each 
division or race consisted of a number of tribes, each tribe 



The American Indian 35 

of a number of clans, and each clan was composed of a 
number of families. Each race spoke a different language. 
The Maskokis occupied all of the southern states east of 
the Mississippi, except a portion of Tennessee and North 
Carolina. They included a number of tribes, the more im- 
portant ones being the Creeks, Choctaws and Chickasaws. 
The Iroquois race was the strongest one in North America, 
and it had more influence on the history of the United 
States than any other. It occupied New York, Pennsyl- 
vania, the country between Lakes Huron and Erie, the 
northeastern part of Ohio, and the larger portion of North 
Carolina, and Tennessee. The more important tribes of 
this race were the Five Nations in New York, the Hu- 
rons north of Lake Erie, and the Cherokees of Tennessee. 
The Algonquin race occupied all the country east of the 
Mississippi between Tennessee and North Carolina on the 
south, to Labrador on the north, except that part occupied 
by the Iroquois. The more important tribes of this race 
were the Powhatans of Virginia, the Delawares of Dela- 
ware, and the Mohegans and Narragansetts of New Eng- 
land. 

3. Half-Civilized Indians 

The half-civilized Indians occupied the mountain regions 
from New Mexico to Chili. Among the more important 
races were the Pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, the 
Aztecs of Mexico, and the Incas of Peru. They built cities 
and temples, constructed military roads, raised various 
products, and made fine cloth. 

Appearance and Manner of Living 

All American Indians were alike in some respects. They 
had black hair, black eyes, a copper-colored skin, high cheek 
bones, and no beard. The barbarous Indians raised some ag- 
ricultural products, but secured most of their food by hunting 
and fishing. They lived in huts and wigwams, and the 
women did most of the hard work. This mode of livine re- 



36 INTRODUCTORY. 

quired a large territory for a small number of people, and 
therefore the number of Indians was always small. 

IV Character 

Although the Indian was kind and hospitable to friends, 
he was by nature cruel, revengeful and treacherous. He was 
brave and would suffer torture without complaint, but in war 
he used all the tactics of a coward, never making a fair open 
fight if he could avoid it. He delighted in torturing prisoners, 
and in murdering women and children. In domestic life he 
was lazy and filthy. But with all these faults he was intelli- 
gent, proud and haughty, and could never be enslaved. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF 
AMERICA 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions which follow, each pupil should 
read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," 
pp. 1-53. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Explain fully 
what the people of the Old World for a long time believed about the 
shape and size of the earth. For about how long did the people have 
these wrong ideas? How much of the world was known before the 
New World was discovered? (Each pupil should draw a map of the 
world as known before the time of Columbus.) Describe the civilization 
of ancient Greece and Rome. How does this civilization tend to prove 
that the failure to discover the New World long before it was discovered 
was not due to ignorance on the part of the people of Europe? Explain 
fully the conditions which caused the Greeks and Romans to take so 
little interest in learning more about the shape and size of the earth. What 
effect did the barbarian invasions have on the civilization of southern 
Europe ? Before the time of Columbus, what conditions prevented the 
people of the other nations of Europe from discovering the New World? 
What did some of the philosophers who lived during this long period 
believe regarding the shape and size of the earth ? Explain carefully 
how the general advance in education and civilization made the 
people of Europe anxious to learn more about these things. Give a care- 
ful discussion of the growth of commerce up to about the time Columbus 
discovered America. Explain how commerce was carried on between En- 



Questions and Topics 37 

rope and Asia. Explain carefully what interfered with this valuable com- 
merce. Explain fully in what way this led to the discovery of America. 
(Each pupil should draw a map that will show the three trade routes 
between Europe and India, and that part of those routes that fell into the 
hands of the Turks.) 

DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

For what was Columbus searching when he made his voyage in 1492? 
Discuss his four voyages to the New World. Explain why he and other 
men in Europe were disappointed at the result of his discoveries and ex- 
plorations. Who were the Northmen? When did they visit America? 
What part of America did they visit? Why are they not considered the real 
discoverers of the New World? Why were their voyages to America not 
very important? Describe the discoveries and explorations of Balboa. 
Describe the discoveries and explorations of Magellan. Describe the 
discoveries and explorations of Ponce de Leon. Of De Soto. Describe 
the voyages and explorations of the Cabots. Of what value were these 
explorations to England? Give a full description of Drake's voyage 
around the world. Describe the attempt of Gilbert and Raleigh to estab- 
lish a colony in the New World. Describe the work of Cartier. Give a 
full description of the explorations of Champlain. Tell what you can 
of the work of Joliet and Marquette. Give a full description of La Salle's 
work. Why was the New World called America instead of being named 
for Columbus? Tell what you can of Henry Hudson and his work. (Each 
pupil should draw a map that will show plainly the route of each of the 
explorers and the part of the New World discovered and explored by each 
nation.) 

DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What was the "right of discovery"? What part of the New World 
did Spain claim by this right? What did England claim? What part 
did France claim? What territory in America did other nations claim 
by the right of discovery? How did England dispose of her territory in 
the New World? Why did this cause trouble in later years? (Each 
pupil should draw a map of North and South America, and indicate on 
said map the territory that was claimed by each of the European nations 
that claimed any of this territory.) 

DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER 

Questions for Class Recitations 

How did the power of Spain compare with that of other nations at 
the time of Columbus? How did this help her in America? How did 



38 INTRODUCTORY 

Spain's possessions in America help build up her influence in Europe? 
How did the EngHsh sea captains injure Spain, and who were the most 
noted of these captains? Why did the king of Spain make war on Eng- 
land? Describe the Invincible Armada. How did the English fleet com- 
pare with the Spanish fleet? Which nation had the better commanders? 
Describe the battle between the Armada and the English fleet. What 
was the effect of the defeat of the Invincible Armada on Spain? What 
effect did it have on England's sea power? How did this affect North 
America ? 

THE AMERICAN INDIAN 

Questions for Class Recitations. 

Why were the native inhabitants of America called Indians? What is 
the difference between savage and barbarous Indians? Between bar- 
barous and half-civilized Indians? Where did the savage Indians live? 
What part of America did the barbarous Indians inhabit? Into what races 
were the barbarous Indians divided? Where did each race live? How 
did these races differ? Name the most important tribes of each race of 
the barbarous Indians. Where did the half-civilized Indians live? How 
did they differ from the savage and barbarous Indians? What Indians 
had the most influence on the history of the United States, the savage, 
the barbarous, or the half-civilized? Why was this? (Each pupil should 
draw a map that will show plainly the territory which the savage and 
barbarous Indians occupied in North America. This map should also 
show plainly the territory occupied by each race and tribe of the bar- 
barous Indians that lived east of the Mississippi.) In what ways were 
all North American Indians alike? Tell all you can about the way they 
lived. Why were there not more Indians in so large a country? Describe 
the nature and habits of the Indian. Why did the white man not make 
slaves of the Indians as he did of the negroes? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the conditions that prevented the discovery of the New World 
before the time of Columbus. Discuss the conditions that led to the dis- 
covery of America. Discuss the voyages of the Northmen to America. 
Discuss the Spanish discoveries and explorations. Discuss the English 
explorations. Compare the explorations of the Spanish with those of the 
English in respect to location and importance. How do the French ex- 
plorations compare with those of the Spanish and English? Discuss the 
claims of the various nations to the territory of the New World. Discuss 
the decline of Spanish power and its effect on America. Compare the 
savage, barbarous and half-civilized Indians in respect to civilization and 
location. Describe the appearance of the American Indian and his man- 
ner of living. Discuss the character of the Indian. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

ORIGIN, GROWTH AND POLITICAL HISTORY 

(For general reference to this period, each pupil should read 
the first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 65-162.) 

A THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

I Virginia 

1. Origin 

D. 36-38; Mc. 29-32; Ma. 25-27; G. 26-27; T. 
19-21 ; M. 52-57 

2. Character of Early Settlers 

D. 38-39; H. I. 175-177; Mc. 27-30, 97-98; G. 
27-29; M. 57-58 

3. Origin of Representative Government in America 

D. 39-41 ; Mc. 33 ; Ma. 30, 32-33 ; G. 33 ; T. 22 ; 

M. 59-60 

4. Virginia Made a Royal Province 

D. 41 ; Mc. 34; Ma. 35-36; T. 39-40; M. 62 

5. Quarrels Between the People and the Royal Gov- 

ernors 
D. 42; Ma. 36-39 

6. Sir William Berkeley 

D. 42-43 ; Ma. 36-39 ; G. 35 ; M. 62-65 

7. Bacon's Rebellion 

D. 43-44; Ma. 39-40; G. 35-36; T. 40-41; M. 
65-66 

II Maryland 
I. Origin 

D. 44; H. I. 143-146; Mc. 34-36; Ma. 41-42; 
G. 37-38; T. 36-37; M. 103-104 



40 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

2. Nature of Government 

D. 45; Mc. 35; Ma. 42-43; G. 38; T. 37-38; 
M. 105 

3. Religious Disputes 

D. 46; Mc. 35-36; Ma. 43-45; T. 38-39; M. 
105-107 

III North and South Carolina 

1. Origin 

D. 46-47; Mc. 54-55; Ma. 45; T. 42-44; M. 
113-115 

2. Character of Colonists 

D. 47-48; Ma. 47-49, 97; T. 44; M. 115 

3. Government 

D. 48; Ma. 46-47; T. 42-43; M. 115-116 

IV Georgia 

1. Origin: Character of Settlers 

D. 48-49; Mc. 57-58; Ma. 49-52; T. 57; M. 
122-124 

2. Government 

D. 50; T. 57-58; M. 125-126 

B NEW ENGLAND 

I Origin and Growth in Population 

I. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colonies 

(a) Origin of Puritans and Separatists 

D. 50-51; Mc. 40; Ma. 53; G. 41-42; M. 

76-77. 

(b) Persecution of Puritans and Separatists 

D. 52; H. I. 180-181 ; Mc. 41; Ma. 53-54; 
G. 42-43; T. 24; M. yy 



Origin, Groivth and Political History 41 

(c) The Founding of Plymouth Colony 

D. 52-54; H. I. 133-136; Mc. 41-46; Ma. 
54-57; G. 44-45 ;T. 25-28; M. 78-82 

(d) The Founding of INIassachusetts Bay Colony 

D. 54-55; H. I. 25-28, 136-140; Ma. 57-59; 
G. 46-50; T. 28-30; M. 82-85 

2. Connecticut and New Haven 

D. 55-56; Mc. 50-51; Ma. 61, 72-y2>; G. 50-52; 
T. 35-36; M. 98-99. loi 

3. Rhode Island 

D. 56-57; Mc. 49-50; Ma. 61-75; G. 52-56; T.- 
33-35 ; M. 86-88 

4. Neiv Hampshire and Maine 

D. 57-58; Mc. 47-48; Ma. 69-70; T. 36; M. 96-98 

II Government in Early New England 

1. The Virginian and the Puritan: Union of Church 

and State 
D. 58-59; Mc. 48; Ma. 59; T. 32-33; M. 62-63, 
86, 96 

2. Local Government: The Town Meeting 

D. 59; M. 81, 96 

3. Government Under the Charters 

D. 60-62; Mc. 46-50; Ma. 67, 69; T. 31-33; 
M. 85-86 

4. Nezv England Confederacy 

(a) Origin 

D. 62-63; Mc. 51-52; Ma. 64-65; G. 56; 
T. 64; M. 90 

(b) Nature 

D. 63 ; Mc. 52 ; T. 65 ; M. 90 

(c) Defects and Value 

D. 63-64; T. 65; M. 90 



42 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

III Rfxations of the English with the Indians 

1. The Indians and the Pilgrims 

D. 64-65; H. I. 28-30; Ma. 66; G. 46; T. 62; 
M. 81-82 

2. The Peqiiod War 

D. 65-67; Mc. 71 ; Ma. 71 ; G. 86; T. 64; M. 88, 
99-100 

3. The Indians and the Puritans 

D. 67-69; Mc. 71 ; T. 62-63; M. 88 

4. King Philip's War 

D. 69-70; Mc. 72; Ma. 66; G. 87-89; T. 65-6^^, 
M. 93-94 

IV Under the Royal Governors 

1. Annulling of the Charter of Massachusetts Bay 

Colony 

(a) First Attack on Charter 

D. 71-72; G. 58-59 

(b) The Confederacy and the Commonwealth 

D. 72; T. 70 

(c) Quarrels Between Charles II and Massa- 

chusetts 
D. 72-72, ; M. 95 

(d) The Charter Annulled 

D. 7z; Mc. 53; M. 95 

2. Ride of Sir Edmund Andres 

D. 74-75 ; Ma. 68, 74; G. 60-61 ; T. 72-75 ; ^I. 95 

3. Sccnring of Royal Charters by Rhode Island and 

Connecticut 

D. 75-77; Mc. 52-53; T. 34, 75; M. 102 

4. Neiv England from i68q to T766 

D. 77; Mc. 53; T. 75; M. 95. 97-98 



Origin, Growth and Political History 43 

C THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

I New York 

1. Discovery and Settlement 

D. 78-79; Mc. 36-39; Ma. 77-78; G. 64-66; M. 
67-70 

2. Character of the Colonists 

D. 79-80; H. I. 174; Mc. 38, 102; Ma. yy, 97; 
T. 48; M. 70-72 

3. Government Under the Dutch 

D. 80-81 ; Ma. 79-83 ; G. 66-68 ; M. 71-73 

4. The Colony Under English Control 

D. 81-82; Mc. 55; Ma. 83-85; G. 68-69; T. 46; 
M. 74 

5. Under the Royal Governors 

D. 82-83; Ma. 84-85; G. 69-70; T. 47-48 

II New Jersey 

1. Origin 

D. 83-84 ; Mc. 55 ; Ma. 86-87 ; T. 49 ; M. 75 

2. Political History 

D. 84 ; Mc. 55 ; Ma. 87-89 ; T. 49-50 ; M. 75-76 

III Delaware 

D. 84-85 ; Mc. 56-57 ; Ma. 85-86 ; T. 56-57 ; M. 1 1 i-i 13 

IV Pennsylvania 

1. Origin 

D. 85-87 ; Mc. 55-56 ; Ma. 89-90 ; G. 71 ; T. 52-53 ; 
M. 118 

2. Settlement and Growth 

D. 87; Ma. 91-94; G. 72, 73; T. 54-56; M. 119, 
122 

3. Government 

D. 87-89; Ma. 95; G. 73; T. 54-57; M. 120 

4. The Province Under Deputy Governors 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

ORIGIN, GROWTH AND POLITICAL HISTORY 

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 
[ Virginia 

1. Origin 

In 1606 James I, King of England, granted the land 
from about Cape Fear to the mouth of the Potomac river 
to a company of London merchants called the London 
Company. This company sent out colonists who in 1607 
founded Jamestown, this being the first permanent English 
settlement in America. The colony did not prosper at first 
but was saved from total destruction by the work of John 
Smith, and later put on its feet by the arrival of Lord Dela- 
ware with provisions and about five hundred more set- 
tlers. The colony now became firmly established, and more 
colonists came over every year. By 1620 there were more 
than four thousand ; in 1670 there were more than forty 
thousand; and in 1750 this number had increased to more 
than five hundred thousand. 

2. Character of Early Settlers 

The London Company was organized for the purpose of 
making money, and the earliest settlers came over for the 
same purpose. Very few of them intended to make homes 
and remain here permanently. Some called themselves 
gentlemen ; some were criminals from the jails of England ; 
and many were lazy and worthless. These men were gov- 
erned by men appointed by the company. Captain John 
Smith and Sir Thomas Dale being the ablest of these early 
governors. Gradually a better class of men came into the 
colony. They came from the better class in England and 
came for the purpose of making homes for themselves and 
their families. 



Origin, Grozvth and Political History 45 

3. Origin of Representative Government in America 

By 1619 the population of Virginia had reached four 
thousand. Most of these settlers were from the middle 
class of England and were accustomed to help make their 
laws and to levy their own taxes. They now asked the 
London Company to allow them to elect a body of men 
to help make the laws. Their request was granted and a 
legislative body called the House of Burgesses was elected 
by the settlers. This was the first law-making body 
elected in America. 

4. Virginia Made a Royal Province 

The London Company came to be very powerful, and 
was controlled by the Puritans who were the political and 
religious enemies of King James L Accordingly he had 
the company's charter annulled, and in 1624 Virginia be- 
came a royal province, whose governor was appointed by 
the king. The people still elected the House of Burgesses 
which helped make the laws. 

5. Quarrels Betiveen the People and the Royal Governors 
During nearly all the time that Virginia was a royal 

province, from 1624 to 1776, there was contention between 
the king and the royal governors on the one side and the 
colonists on the other, as to whether the latter should 
have any voice in law making. The kings and the royal 
governors wished to do away with the power of the House 
of Burgesses, but the people would not permit it. The 
constant friction between the people and the royal govern- 
ors tended to cause the colonists to lose their respect and 
love for England, and this was indirectly one of the causes 
which led to the Revolutionary War. 

6. Sir William Berkeley 

One of the most important of the royal governors of 
Virginia was Sir William Berkeley. His long rule was 



46 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

noted especially for two things : the large immigration of 
English colonists, and his steady opposition to the rights 
of the people. He was, perhaps, the most tyrannical of the 
royal governors. 

7. Bacon's Rehcllion 

Governor Berkeley's refusal to protect the people on the 
frontier from Indian raids forced them to defend them- 
selves. Nathaniel Bacon organized a force for this pur- 
pose, and for this was declared a rebel by Berkeley. After 
Bacon's death Berkeley regained his power and punished 
Bacon's followers with such severity that the people were 
still more aroused against the oppressive rule of the royal 
governors. 

II Maryland 

1. Origin 

King Charles I granted to George Calvert, Lord Balti- 
more, the territory including the present states of Mary- 
land and Delaware. Lord Baltimore's purpose was to 
provide a home for English Catholics. Two hundred col- 
onists came over in 1634 and founded the town of St. 
Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac. In 1688 the popu- 
lation of the colony had increased to about twenty-five 
thousand, and in 1760 there were more than one hundred 
forty-five thousand people living in Maryland. 

2. Nature of Government 

By the terms of the charter Lord Baltimore and his de- 
scendants had authority over the new colony almost equal 
to that of the English king, but the people had the right to 
assist in making the laws. 

3. Religions Disputes 

Several years after Maryland was first established, large 
numbers of Puritans came into the colonv. Later the 



Origin, Grozvth and Political History 47 

Episcopalians became strong also, and most of the political 
history of the colony is closely related to religious con- 
tentions among the Catholics, Puritans and Episcopalians. 

North and South Carolina 

1. Origin 

In 1663 King Charles II granted the territory between 
Virginia and Florida to eight of his friends among whom 
were Sir William Berkeley, the Duke of Albemarle, the 
Earl of Clarendon, and the Earl of Shaftesbury. Before 
this charter was issued a few English colonists had made 
a settlement on Albemarle Sound and these were soon 
joined by others. The first settlement in South Carolina 
was made on the southern side of Charleston Harbor in 
1670, and ten years later Charleston was founded. Other 
settlements were soon made in both North and South Caro- 
lina, the most important being around Charleston and on 
the Cape Fear River. But during the first thirty-five 
years the growth in population was not rapid. At first 
South Carolina was most populous, the settlements around 
Charleston in 1682 having a population of about three 
thousand. At the close of the seventeenth century the 
population began to increase more rapidly. In 1750 there 
were about ninety thousand people living in North Caro- 
lina, and about eighty thousand in South Carolina. 

2. Character of Colonists 

The colonists of North and South Carolina came from 
various nations and were members of different churches. 
Many came because of religious persecutions at home. 
This mixed population represented strength and deter- 
mination. 

3. Government 

The proprietors to whom the king had granted the two 
colonies belonged to the Church of England, and their 



48 THE Tl-JIRTEEN COLONIES 

efforts to keep all who did not belong to their church from 
taking any part in the government caused constant trouble 
between the governors, whom they appointed, and the 
people. The people insisted on helping make the laws and 
soon secured the right to elect legislative bodies. Because 
of frequent and serious disorders in the government the 
charter was annulled in 1729, and North and South Caro- 
lina each became a royal province. 

IV Georgia 

1. Origin: Character of Settlers 

In 1732 King George II granted to James Oglethorpe 
and twenty other men the territory between South Carolina 
and Florida for the purpose of making homes for men 
who were imprisoned for debt in England. Rich men gave 
money and Parliament voted a sum to aid these debtors 
to make another start in the new colony which was called 
Georgia. Oglethorpe was appointed governor, and in 1733 
he, with thirty-five families, made the first settlement in the 
last English colony to be established in America, by found- 
ing the city of Savannah. Augusta was founded the next 
year and five years later another settlement was made at the 
mouth of the Altamaha. The colony at first was not pros- 
perous. In 1752 there were less than five thousand people 
living in Georgia, but from this time on the population 
increased more rapidly and had reached about fifty thous- 
and in 1766. 

2. Government 

Oglethorpe was appointed governor before leaving Eng- 
land and continued to hold that office until 1743. The 
charter placed the government entirely in the hands of the 
proprietors, and the colonists assisted very little in making 
the laws. After Oglethorpe returned to England the 
affairs of the colony got into very bad shape, and in 1752 
the colony was made a royal province. 



Origin, Grou'th and Political History 49 

NEW ENGLAND 
I Origin and Growth in Population 

I. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colonies 

(a) Origin of Puritans and Separatists 

Because the Pope would not grant him permission to 
divorce his wife and marry Anne Boleyn, one of her 
maids, King Henry VIII of England induced Parlia- 
ment to pass a statute which declared him and not the 
Pope the head of the Catholic Church in England. 
Henry did not wish to make many changes in the Church 
of England, as the Catholic church in England was then 
called, but many of the English people did, and after 
the reform was begun by the king, it could not easily 
be checked. Some withdrew from the church altogether 
and were therefore called Separatists. Some wished to 
remain in the church and reform or purify it, and these, 
therefore, were called Puritans. 

(b) Persecution of Separatists and Puritans 

The Separatists were not permitted to withdraw 
peacefully from the Episcopal or Established church, 
and to establish churches of their own. In many cases 
their property was taken from them, they were sent to 
jail and the leaders were put to death. In 1607 some of 
them escaped from England and settled in Holland. At 
first the Puritans joined in these persecutions, but soon 
they themselves began to be persecuted, and some of 
them joined the Separatists in Holland. 

(c) The Founding of Plymouth Colony 

The Separatists and Puritans who had fled to Holland 
did not wish to remain there, because they were afraid 
that their children would acquire the speech, habits, and 
manners of the Dutch. They wished to find a place 
where they could live and worship in peace and still re- 
main British subjects in British territory. They had 



50 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

heard of the success of the Jamestown colony and de- 
cided to estabHsh a home for themselves and their 
children in the New World. In 1620 about one hundred 
of these Separatists, called Pilgrims, because of their 
wanderings, sailed for America in the Mayflower. On 
December 21st they landed on the coast of the present 
state of Massachusetts and founded the colony of Ply- 
mouth. The first winter was a severe one and more 
than half of the colonists died of cold, hunger, and dis- 
ease. However, in the face of all discouragements these 
men and women clung to their new home persistently. 
In 1630 the colony contained only three hundred 
sixty persons, in 1640 about three thousand and in 1670 
it had reached eight thousand. 

(d) The Founding of Massachusetts Bay Colony 

Charles I, who became king in 1625, was strongly op- 
posed to both the religious and political ideas of the 
Puritans. The persecutions of the Puritans became 
worse and worse, and so they also decided to settle in 
the New World. In 1628 some of the leading Puritans 
purchased from the Plymouth or New England Com- 
pany a large tract of land in Massachusetts lying be- 
tween the Charles and the Merrimac Rivers and extend- 
ing from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. Soon after- 
ward a small party of Puritans, led by John Endicott, 
settled at a place called Naumkeag and changed the 
name to Salem. In 1629 the King granted to the men 
who had purchased this tract of land a charter which 
created a corporation called the Governor and Company 
of Massachusetts Bay. During the same year about four 
hundred emigrants crossed to this territory and settled 
at Salem, thus making it larger than Plymouth, which 
had been founded nine years before. During 1630 more 
than one thousand Puritans came to New England and 
settled the towns of Charleston, Boston, Roxburg, Dor- 



Origin, Groiiili and Political History 51 

Chester, Watertown, and New Town (later called Cam- 
bridge). By 1635 the number of colonists in the differ- 
ent settlements in Massachusetts amounted to about five 
thousand. 

2. Connecticut and Nczv Hai'en 

In 1636 the towns of Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield 
were founded by settlers from the INIassachusetts Bay 
Colony. These three towns remained a part of Massachu- 
setts until 1639, when they agreed to unite and were then 
known as the colony of Connecticut. In 1638 a wealthy 
congregation of Puritans from England founded New 
Haven, and around this town grew up other towns. These 
towns united and became the colony of New Haven. These 
two colonies kept up a separate existence until 1662, when 
Connecticut attained a royal charter which annexed to her 
the New Haven colony. The united colony prospered and 
its advance in wealth and population was rapid. By the 
time of the Revolution, Connecticut contained about two 
hundred thousand inhabitants. 

3. Rhode Island 

The settlement of Rhode Island was due largely to re- 
ligious and political troubles in Massachusetts. Roger 
Williams, a Puritan minister, was banished from Massa- 
chusetts on account of the political and religious doctrines 
he taught. With his followers he bought land from the 
Indians and made a settlement called Providence. Other 
towns were founded by Anne Hutchinson and Samuel 
Gorton, and later all these united under the title Rhode 
Island. 

4. Nezv Hampshire and Maine 

The earliest settlements in the territory later known as 
New Hampshire were two trading posts at Dover and 
Portsmouth, established in 1636 by John Mason and Fer- 



52 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

dinand Gorges. In the territory known as Maine but few 
settlements were made. It was never known as one of the 
colonies except as a part of Massachusetts. 

II Government in Early New England 

I. The Virginian and the Puritan: Union of Church and 
State 
The early settlers of Virginia and a large portion of 
those of the other southern colonies, did not come to the 
New World in order to escape from religious persecution. 
They belonged to the Episcopal or Established Church of 
England and therefore were under the protection of the 
government in religious matters. They came to the New 
World for the sake of adventure and more especially be- 
cause they could make a better living for themselves and 
their children. They were thorough believers in the civil 
and political liberty which Englishmen enjoyed, and they 
and their descendants were as stout in the defense of those 
rights in the struggle with the English kings which ended 
in the Revolution, as were the people of New England. 
The colonists of New England, unlike those of Virginia, 
came to America mainly because of religious persecution 
in England. Many of them were men of wealth and were 
graduates of the English Universities of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge. They planned to and did establish a state based 
on Puritan ideas of religion and government. This does 
not mean that the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colo- 
nies were places where religious liberty existed. The Puri- 
tans persecuted those who preached any doctrine other than 
Puritanism just as severely as they themselves had been 
persecuted in England by Episcopalians. From the very 
first in Massachusetts the Church and State were very 
closely united. The laws provided that no one should 
vote or hold an office of any kind unless he were a mem- 
ber of a Puritan church or congregation. This form of 
government in which the Church and the State are thus 
connected is known as a Theocracv. 



Origin, Grou'th and Political History 53 

2. Local Government: The Tozun Meeting 

The large immigration into Massachusetts Bay Colony 
called for the immediate organization of a definite form of 
government. As a rule the Puritans came over as congre- 
gations, and each congregation established a small town. 
The freemen of each town, which included the adjacent 
country, met at the meeting house or town hall and elected 
town officers and transacted all the town business. 

3. Government Under the Charters 

The charter granted to the Massachusetts Bay Company 
provided for the election of a governor and a deputy gov- 
ernor, and of a committee of eighteen members called as- 
sistants. These officers when assembled constituted what 
was known as the General Court. A little later representa- 
tives were elected from each town. These met in a separate 
legislative body and soon secured more power in the gov- 
ernment than the governor and assistants. Government in 
the other New England colonies was much the same. In 
Rhode Island and Connecticut the Church and State were 
entirely separate. Connecticut differed from the other 
colonies in that she had a written constitution made and 
adopted by the people. 

4. New England Confederacy 

(a) Origin 

There were certain conditions in early New England 
which might at any time require the colonies to act to- 
gether. In order to be ready in case of attacks by the 
Dutch, French or Indians on the frontier, all the New 
England colonies except Rhode Island formed a con- 
federacy. Rhode Island was excluded because of her 
unsettled religious and political conditions. 

(b) Nature 

The confederation was not a real union, but a mere 
agreement to act together on certain general questions. 



54 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

The government was in charge of eight commissioners, 
two elected from each colony. The commissioners had 
entire control of questions arising between the colonies 
and the Indians, or a foreign power. 

(c) Defects 

The commissioners had no power to enforce their acts ; 
the government was simply advisory. This lack of 
power made the Confederacy a weak form of union. 
Another weakness was that each of the colonies had the 
same power in the government, while they differed 
widely in population and wealth, Massachusetts having 
more inhabitants and paying more taxes than all the 
others combined. This caused ill feeling and weakened 
the Confederacy. 

(d) Value 

The Confederacy was especially valuable during the 
war with the Indians, 1675-78. It was also of value to 
all the English colonies in America as it served to pre- 
pare men's minds for unity of action a hundred years 
later when union became absolutely necessary in order 
that the colonists might maintain their rights. 

Ill Relations of the English With the Indians 

1. The Indians and the Pilgrims 

Up to about 1635, the colonists of New England were 
not troubled by the Indians. The Pilgrims found few In- 
dians in the region in which they settled. With these they 
made a treaty of peace which was faithfully kept both by 
the Indians and the English for more than fifty years. The 
attitude of the Indians further inland was also friendly at 
first. 

2. Pequod War 

The steady advance of the English into the Indian ter- 
ritory roused the dislike and jealousy of the Indians. This 



Origin, GroxvtJi and Political History 55 

feeling soon led to warfare which broke out between the 
Pequods and the settlers. This war resulted in the de- 
struction of the entire tribe, the most powerful tribe in New 
England, and the effect upon the other Indians was such 
that they did not attack the English for nearly forty years. 

3. The Indians and the Puritans 

The dealings of the Puritans with the Indians were, on 
the whole, just and honorable. The Puritans converted 
many of the Indians to Christianity, and tried to educate 
and to civilize them but without much success. The Indian 
and the Puritan did not understand each other. The Indian 
had no conception of what private ownership of land meant, 
and when he saw finally that selling the land to the Eng- 
lish meant giving it up forever and being put out of the 
territory, he became unfriendly. The Indians also re- 
sented having their chiefs called to account for the mis- 
deeds of the members of the tribes. 

4. King Philip's War 

When Massasoit, who had made the early treaty of 
peace with the English, died, and his son Philip became 
chief of the Wampanoags, the growing dislike and distrust 
of the Indians for the English broke out in a war. This 
war began in 1675 and lasted three years with dreadful 
effect upon both the English and the Indians. It was much 
more serious than the Pequod w'ar. Over four thousand 
well armed Indian warriors were united against the Eng- 
lish. A great deal of life and property was lost, and a 
heavy debt was incurred by the English. The three tribes 
of Indians engaged were almost completely destroyed. The 
end of this war marks the end of Indian power in New 
England. It was a contest between the people of a weak 
race who owned the soil, and the invaders who belonged to 
a higher and stronger civilization. As is usually the case, 
the more vigorous and higher civilization triumphed. 



56 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

IV Under the Royal Governors 

I, Annulling of the Charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony 

(a) First Attempts 

King Charles I hated the Puritans and seized upon 
complaints made by people who had been banished from 
Massachusetts and others who were jealous of her power, 
as an excuse to attack her government. He demanded 
the charter in 1635 but Massachusetts refused to give it 
up and trouble at home kept him from sending an army 
to compel obedience. 

(b) The Confederacy and the Commonwealth 

In 1642 war broke out in England between Charles I 
and Parliament. In 1643 the New England Confederacy 
was formed, and from that time until the defeat of the 
King's army in 1649, New England was practically inde- 
pendent of outside power. During the time when Crom- 
well and Parliament ruled England without a king. New 
England continued to conduct her affairs about as she 
pleased, with little interference from the home govern- 
ment. 

(c) Quarrels Between Charles II and Massachusetts 
When Charles II came to the throne in 1662 he made 

certain courteous and reasonable demands of Massa- 
chusetts Bay Colony regarding the acknowledging of 
his authority, religious toleration for Episcopalians, and 
extending the right to vote to the members of other 
churches. The Colony refused to comply with these 
demands but war in Europe prevented Charles from 
taking action against it until 1675. 

(d) The Charter Annulled 

The Massachusetts Bay Colony had annexed New 
Hampshire and Maine. The heirs of Mason and Gorges 
to whom this territory had originally been granted, 
claimed that the territory belonged to them. King 



Origin, Grozvth and Political History 57 

Charles sent over a commissioner to investigate affairs 
in the colony, regarding its compliance with his demands, 
the state of feeling among the people, the colony's rights 
to New Hampshire and Maine, and the enforcing of 
English laws. The commissioner's report was very un- 
favorable to the colony, and in 1684 the charter was 
annulled. 



2. Ride of Sir Edmund Andros 

In 1685 Sir Edmund Andros was appointed governor of 
all New England, and of New York and New Jersey. 
One main object of the English government for this ac- 
tion was the union of all the northern colonies, in order 
to be better prepared for any attack of the French from 
Canada. The plan or method of bringing about this union 
could not have been much worse. Andros was directed 
to seize the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, but 
this he was unable to do. He abolished the legislature of 
Massachusetts and levied taxes and arrested men with- 
out due process of law. While his rule was very despotic 
and arbitrary, it should be remembered that the leaders of 
the Puritan party did all they could to anger him, even 
going so far as to oppose strongly the establishment of an 
Episcopal church at Boston. James 11 was just as despotic 
with his people in England as his governor was with them 
in New England. In 1688 James was forced to leave 
England, and William, Prince of Orange, became king. 
As soon as the people of Massachusetts heard of this the\ 
arrested Andros and placed him in jail. Connecticut and 
Rhode Island re-established governments under their char- 
ters, and continued this form of government down to the 
time of the Revolution. New Hampshire from this on had 
a royal governor, but the people elected the lower branch 
of the Legislature, which was by far the more important 
part of the law-making body. 



58 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

3. Securing of Royal Charters by Rhode Ishvid and Con- 

necticut 

When Charles II came to the throne, Rhode Island and 
Connecticut each sent a pleasing and flattering address to 
the king and secured charters which .provided for a most 
liberal form of government. By this charter New Ha- 
ven was annexed to Connecticut. 

4. Massachusetts and Nezv Hampshire from i68p to 1/66 

Massachusetts hoped that the new king would give her 
back her beloved charter, but she was disappointed. She 
was granted a new charter which gave her the right to 
elect a legislature or law-making body, and which provided 
that no taxes could be levied except by this legislature. 
The people of Massachusetts, therefore, could not be taxed 
except by themselves, a right dear to all Englishmen, and 
one which the people of all the colonies were determined 
to have. The charter also provided that no man should be 
denied the right to vote or to take part in the government 
because of his religious ideas. Under the old charter the 
governor was elected by the people ; but under the new 
charter he was appointed by the king. All laws passed 
by the legislature had to be sent to the king for his ap- 
proval before they became effective. This was not so libe- 
ral a government as that enjoyed by the people of Rhode 
Island and Connecticut, but the people of Massachusetts 
had to live tmder it until the Revolution, when all the 
colonies became independent of England. As the new 
charter annexed the colony of Plymouth and the territory 
of Maine to the Massachusetts Bay Colony the people of 
these two places also lived under the government of this 
charter. From 1689 to 1776 Massachusetts and New 
Hampshire were governed by royal governors appointed 
by the English kings, and by a legislature elected by the 
people. During the greater part of this time the governors 
and the people were quarreling about taxes and laws. All 
these quarrels caused the people to care less and less for 



Origin, Grozvth and Political History 59 

the mother country and served to prepare them for com- 
plete separation from England. 

THE MIDDLE COLONIES 
I New York 

1. Discovery and Settlement 

In 1609, Henry Hudson, an English sailor employed by 
a Dutch commercial company, discovered the river which 
now bears his name, and explored the country bordering it. 
The Dutch called the territory New Netherlands and im- 
mediately began to send settlers over to secure the valuable 
fur trade of the region. The first settlement was made on 
Manhattan Island in 1614 and other towns soon sprang up 
along the Hudson, on Long Island, and on Manhat- 
tan Island. In 1655 the territory now known as New 
Jersey and Delaware was taken by the Dutch and made 
part of their colony. 

2. Character of the Colonists 

While the territory was claimed and held by the Dutch, 
the settlers came from all parts of Europe. These first 
settlers came simply for trading, not for the purpose of 
making homes. In order to encourage permanent settlers, 
valuable grants of land along the Hudson were given to 
men bringing to New Netherlands fifty permanent set- 
tlers. These grants were called patroonships, and the 
men receiving them, patroons. This brought in many 
settlers, but more men of the better class came in later 
when cheap ownership of small holdings of land was 
promised. 

3. Government Under the Dutch 

While this colony was under the Dutch control the 
people had very little voice in the government. The gov- 
ernor was appointed by the company, and although he had 
a council to advise him, he really had all the power in his 
own hands. Peter Stuvvesant stands out as the ablest of 



60 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

all the Dutch governors. His rule was arbitrary and he 
paid little attention to the rights of the people, but the 
wealth and population of the colony more than doubled 
under his administration. 

4. The Colony Under English Control 

New Netherlands by its position divided the English 
colonies into two parts, and for that reason, as well as on 
account of its commercial value, the English desired its 
possession. So in 1664 the English king, Charles II, sent 
over a small fleet and took possession of the entire colony. 
In 1673 the Dutch again obtained control of this terri- 
tory, but only for one year. The English king granted this 
province to James, Duke of York and Albany, and the 
name of the colony was changed to New York. The Duke 
granted the southern part of the territory to two English- 
men as a separate province under the name of New Jersey. 

5. Under the Royal Governors 

When the province was given to the Duke of York, 
a charter was given the people, which was based on the 
New England charters, but did not give the people so 
many rights in the government. In 1685 James became 
King of England and New York thus became a royal 
province. From this time the government was carried 
on along the same lines as the other royal colonies, that 
is, with a governor and council appointed by the king and 
an assembly elected by the people. As in New England, 
there was a great deal of trouble between the legislature 
and the governor. The people never gained as much power 
in law-making as they did in New England or the southern 
colonies. 

n New Jersey 
I. Origin 

The real history of this colony begins in 1664 when the 
Duke of York granted the territory between New York 



Origin, Grozvtii and Political History 61 

harbor and Delaware Bay to Lord Berkeley and Sir 
George Carteret, giving it the name New Jersey. Settlers 
came in from New York, New England and Europe, and 
the province grew steadily in population and wealth. 

J. Political History 

When the proprietors received the grant of New Jersey 
they established a liberal form of government wnth a gov- 
ernor and council appointed by themselves, and an as- 
sembly elected by the freemen. Owing to some trouble in 
managing the colony. Lord Berkeley sold his share to the 
Quakers, and the province was divided into East and West 
Jersey. The Quakers organized a more liberal govern- 
ment in the western part, while East Jersey was organized 
on the same lines as the whole province had been. In 1682 
William Penn and some associates became the proprietors 
of East Jersey. Continual trouble between the province 
and the proprietors led the proprietors to give up their 
rights in 1702, and the two provinces were united and 
placed directly under control of the Crown. 

III Delaware 

The first colony of any importance in this territory was 
established by Sweden in 1638. Thirteen years later this 
territory was taken by the Dutch, and, with New Jersey, 
made a part of New Netherlands. When the English con- 
quered the Dutch, Delaware remained a part of New York 
until 1682 when William Penn obtained a grant to it as a 
part of Pennsylvania. In 1702 Delaware organized a sep- 
arate legislature and became a separate province, but re- 
mained under the governor of Pennsylvania. 

IV Pennsylvania 
I. Origin 

In 1681 Charles II granted a tract of land extending 
from the Delaware river westward and containing forty 
thousand square miles, to William Penn, in payment of 
a debt owed by the Crown to his father. Penn's plan was 



62 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

to found a colony for the Quakers who were persecuted 
in England. As his colony had no sea coast, Penn bought 
the rights to Delaware and governed it as part of Pennsyl- 
vania. In 1702 Delaware was made a separate colony with 
a separate legislature, though it remained under the same 
govcnor as Pennsylvania. 

2. Settlement and Grozvth 

Penn put his plan before the people promising just gov- 
ernment, religious freedom, protection of personal rights 
and cheap land. As a result, large numbers of Quakers 
from England, and settlers from all parts of Europe, es- 
pecially Germany, came to this new territory at once. The 
growth of this colony was more rapid than that of any 
other American colony. 

3. Government 

When Charles II granted Pennsylvania to William 
Penn he placed some restrictions on his government, the 
most important being that all laws must be approved by 
the king, and that the king might tax the people of the 
colony directly. Penn established a very democratic form 
of government in the colony, the law-making power being 
given to a legislature of two houses, both of whose mem- 
bers were elected by the people. Penn acted as governor, 
but did not retain much power. Later he took away some 
of the power given the people. 

4. Province Under Deputy Governors 

When Penn left the colony in 1701 he made a new con- 
stitution by which the Assembly elected by the people had 
the power to make all the laws, and the governor and 
council appointed by the proprietor were merely advisory. 
The colony was left in charge of a deputy governor and 
secretary, and the government was carried on in this way 
until the Revolution. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 
Questions for Class Recitations. 

(In connection with the questions on the "Origin, Growth, and Pohti- 
cal History of the Thirteen Colonies," each pupil should read the first 
number of Hart's ''Source Readers in American History," pp. 55-162. 
See "Explanatory and Suggestive," p. ix.) What caused the English to 
renew their attempts to colonize in the New World? Explain fully the 
relations between the Virginia Company and its two branches,— the Lon- 
don and the Plymouth companies. Describe the government which the 
general charter provided for these three companies. What territory was 
granted to the Virginia Company? What part of this territoi-y was 
granted at first to each of its branch companies? (Each pupil should 
draw a map that will show plainly the territory granted to the main or 
Virginia Company, and the sub-grants of this territory to the London and 
Plymouth companies.) What was the object of the London Company 
in sending settlers to America? Describe the condition of the Jamestown 
settlement during the first year, and the work of John Smith. What was 
the character of the early settlers? Why did they come to the New 
World? Describe the government of the colony under Thomas Dale, 
and the condition of the colony under his rule. 

What is representative government? Describe its origin in America. 
What is a royal province or colony? Explain carefully how and why 
Virginia became a royal province. Did this change affect the law-making 
power of the people? Describe in a general way the relations between 
the royal government and the people. What were the general results of 
these relations? How long was Sir William Berkeley governor of Vir- 
ginia? What caused his term of office as governor to be divided? For 
what two things was his long rule especially noted? Describe Bacon's 
Rebellion, discussing its cause and results. 

Discuss the origin of Maryland and its growth in population. Con- 
trast Virginia and Maryland with regard to the object of settlement. What 
is a proprietary colony? Describe the difference between the proprietary 
colony Maryland and the royal province Virginia in regard to the selection 
of governor. Contrast Maryland and Virginia in regard to the rights and 
powers the people had in the government of each colony. Explain care- 
fully how religious disputes affected the political history of Maryland. 
Describe the relations of Virginia and Maryland. 

Describe the origin of North and South Carolina and their growth in 
population. Compare the granting of this territory with the granting of 



64 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

Virginia to the London Company. What is the form of government that 
first existed in the Carolinas called? Describe the character of the early 
settlers. Why did they settle in these two colonies? What rights did 
the people of these two colonies have in the government when it was first 
organized? Explain carefully how the religious beliefs of the people affected 
their political rights. Explain carefully to what extent the people con- 
trolled government in these two colonies. What caused these two colonies 
to become royal provinces? Describe briefly the growth of these colonies, 
giving the names and locations of the larger towns. 

Describe the origin and growth of Georgia, and give the reason for 
its settlement. What was the character of its early settlers ? Describe 
the growth of this colony. Why was the colony not more prosperous? 
What powers did the people have in the government? In what way was 
South Carolina benefited by the founding of Georgia ? When and why 
did Georgia become a royal province? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the object of the settlement and the character of the settlers 
of each of the southern colonies. Compare these colonies with respect 
to growth in wealth and population. Discuss the origin of representative 
government in America. Compare the southern colonies with respect to 
the rights of the people in government. Discuss the relations between 
the royal governors and the people. (Each pupil should draw a map of 
the southern colonies. This map should show the boundaries and the more 
important cities, mountains, and rivers of each colony.) 

THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

Questions for Class Recitations. 

Explain carefully why King Henry VIII. had himself declared the 
head of the Catholic church in England. Did he wish to destroy or make 
many changes in the doctrines of the church ? How did the Episcopal 
church come to be established? Describe the origin of the Puritans. 
Describe the origin of the Separatists. How did the Separatists diflfer 
from the Puritans? How were the Puritans and Separatists treated? 
Why did the Separatists go to Holland? Why did they wish to leave 
Holland and go to America? Why were they called Pilgrims? Did they 
intend to settle in Massachusetts? Describe the first year of the life of 
the Plymouth colony. Explain carefully the conditions that caused the 
Puritans to wish to leave England and come to America. How did the 
Puritans obtain land in America? What settlements were made by the 
Puritans in Massachusetts? Compare the growth of the Plymouth colony 
with that of the Massachusetts Bay colony. Describe the origin and growth 



Questions and Topics 65 

of the Connecticut colony. Describe the origin and growth of the New 
Haven colony. How did the Connecticut and New Haven colonies be- 
come united? What caused the settlement of Rhode Island? Tell 
what you can about Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. Describe 
the growth of Rhode Island. What was the character of the 
first settlements in New Hampshire and Maine? 

Compare the object of the settlers of New England with that of the 
settlers of Virginia in coming to America. Give a careful discussion of 
religious liberty in each of the New England colonies. What kind of 
government did they establish? Explain carefully how the life and gov- 
ernment of the people were affected by the fact that they came over in con- 
gregations, each congregation settling together. Discuss the town meet- 
ings, explaining their nature, powers, and who could take part in them. 
Tell what you can about the beginning of representative government in 
New England. Compare this with the beginning of representative govern- 
ment in Virginia. Give a careful discussion of the government provided 
for by her charter. Show that it was not necessary in all the colonies for 
a man to be a church member in order that he might vote. Describe the 
government of Plymouth colony. Give a careful description of the gov- 
ernment of Connecticut and Rhode Island. In what way did the govern- 
ment of Connecticut differ from that of all the other colonies? By a care- 
ful discussion show that in New England the people controlled the law- 
making branch of the government. What caused the formation of the 
New England Confederacy? Why was Rhode Island not admitted to this 
Confederacy? Describe the nature of the government provided for by the 
Confederacy. Why was it not a strong union? Of what value was the 
Confederacy ? 

Explain carefully why the Indians at first did not trouble the Pilgrims. 
Explain carefully why later they became unfriendly. Discuss the causes 
and results of the Pequod War. How did the Puritans treat the Indians 
as a rule? Why were the Indians and the Puritans not able to get along 
well together? Discuss the causes of King Philip's War. Compare this 
war with the Pequod War. Give a careful discussion of the results of 
King Philip's War, and explain how this war affected the future relations 
of the people of New England with the Indians. 

Explain carefully why Charles I. disliked the Puritans. For what causes 
(lid the Puritans banish people from Massachusetts? Describe the quar- 
rels between Massachusetts and Charles I. Discuss the relations between 
New England and the English government during the time that Crom- 
well and Parliament ruled England. When Charles II. became king, what 
demand did he make on the Massachusetts Bay colony? Were these 
demands reasonable? Explain fully all the conditions and circumstances 
that caused the charter of this colony to be annulled. Explain all the 
circumstances and conditions that enabled Connecticut and Rhode Island 



66 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

to secure new charters at this time. Explain carefully the nature of the 
government for which these charters provided. Explain why many people 
in Massachusetts did not object to having the charter of their colony an- 
nulled. Explain carefully how Governor Andros created strong opposition 
to his rule in Massachusetts. Explain carefully how his rule afifected 
Connecticut and Rhode Island. Why did the king wish to unite all New 
England under one governor? How was the rule of Governor Andros 
brought to an end? Explain carefully the nature of the government pro- 
vided for by the new charter which the new king granted to Massachu- 
setts. How did this charter affect Plymouth colony and Maine? Indicate 
briefly the condition of government in each of the New England colonies 
from 1689 to 1776. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the religious conditions in England leading to the settlements 
of New England. Describe the settlement of each of the New England 
colonies. Compare the New England colonies with the southern colonies 
in respect to the object of their settlement and character of their settlers. 
Discuss the Puritan ideas of government as shown in the government 
established in New England. Compare the New England and the southern 
colonies in respect to the power of the people in the government. Discuss 
the relation between the Indians and the settlers of New England. Dis- 
cuss the annulling of the charter of the Massachusetts Bay colony. Com- 
pare the relations between the people and the royal governors in New 
England with those between the people and the royal governors in the 
southern colonies. 

THE MIDDLE COLONIES 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain fully how the Dutch secured New York. Compare carefully 
the settlement of Virginia and of Massachusetts with regard to purpose 
of settlement. Why was New York at first called New Netherland? De- 
scribe the character of the early settlers. Describe the policy adopted for 
inducing settlers to come to the colony. Describe the government of New 
York by the Dutch. Tell what you can of the work of Peter Stuyvesant. 
Discuss the conquest of New York by the English. Explain carefully the 
conditions that caused New York to become a royal province. Compare 
the government of New York by the English with its government by the 
Dutch. Give a careful discussion of the relations of the people with the 
royal governors. 

Describe the origin and growth of New Jersey. Describe the govern- 
ment established in this colony by the proprietors. Why was the colony 



Questions and Topics • 67 

divided? Describe full}' the conditions which caused this colony to be 
made a royal province. Describe the origin and growth of Delaware. 
Give a full and careful explanation of the conditions that caused William 
Penn to found a colony in America. Describe the settlement of Pennsyl- 
vania and its growth in population. Why did Penn buy the right to Dela- 
ware? Explain the origin of the Mason and Dixon line and its relation 
to slavery. Describe the character of the early settlers of Pennsylvania. 
Describe the government established by Penn. Compare the rights of the 
people in the government of this colony with their rights in the govern- 
ment of the other colonies. Describe the government of the province 
under the deputy governors. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the causes leading to the settlement of each of the middle 
colonies, and compare them with the causes of the settlement of New 
England and the southern colonies. Compare each of the middle colonies 
with the New England and southern colonies in respect to government, 
bringing out the powers of the people in the government of each. Com- 
pare the middle with the southern and New England colonies in respect 
to the character of their settlers. Compare the growth of the middle 
colonies with the growth of the New England and the southern colonies. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA 

(In connection with this chapter, each pupil should read the 
first number of Hart's Source Readers in American History, 
pp. 71-150.) 

I French Explorations and Settlements 

D. 96-99; Mc. 60-65; Ma. 117-121; G. 89-94; M. 28, 
126-130 

II Contrast of French and English Settlements 

D. 99-101 ; T. 89-90; M. 131 

III Relations of the French with the Indians 

1. Value of Indian Friendship 

D. loi ; Mc. 70-71; Ma. 118-119 

2. Enmity of the Iroquois 

D. 101-104; Mc. 72-73 

IV Early Conflict Between French and English 

1. Conditions Making Conflict Inevitable 

D. 104-105; Mc. 76; Ma. 121 

2. Conditions Leading to English Success 

D. 105-106 

3. King William's, Queen Anne's and King George's 

Wars, 1689-1748 
D. 106-107; Mc. 76-81; Ma. 122-124; T. 85-87; 
M. 131-134 

V The French and Indian War, 1754-1763 

I. Beginnings 

D. 108-114; H. II. 138-141; Mc. 81-88; Ma. 
124-129; G. 95-103; T. 90-96; M. 135-139 



The French in North America 69 

T/ie War Under Pitt's Direction, 17 58-1 763 

D. 114-118; H. II. 146-150; Mc. 89-90: Ma. 
129-133; G. 103-106; T, 97-100; M. 139-140 

Treaty of Peace: Results of the War 

D. 118-119; Mc. 90-91; Ma. 133-135; G. 106- 
107; T. loo-ioi ; M. 141-142 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA 

I French Explorations and Settlements 

The French explored the Mississippi Valley and the ter- 
ritory north of the Great Lakes and the English colonies. 
Cartier and Champlain were the first important explorers of 
the country along the St. Lawrence. Champlain established 
several permanent settlements, among them being Port 
Royal, Quebec and Montreal. From these early settlements 
made between 1603 and 1612, later explorers pushed on 
through the region of the Great Lakes and discovered and 
explored the Mississippi river and valley. Joliet, Marquette 
and La Salle were the foremost explorers of the Mississippi 
river and its tributaries. La Salle giving the name Louisiana 
to this territory. Thus in 1682 the French claims in America 
included all the territory from the Appalachian to the Rock} 
Mountains, the region of the Great Lakes, and the country 
north of the English colonies, including Nova Scotia and 
Newfoundland. 

II Contrast of French and English Settlements 

The difference between the French and the English colo- 
nies was due largely to the difference in the purpose and man-: 
ner of settlement. The English came to make homes, while 
the French came for the money to be gained from the fisheries 
and the fur trade ; to convert the Indians ; and to gain more 
territory for France. Consequently the English built up 
strong and prosperous farming communities along the coast, 
while the French spread their claims over as much territory 
as possible, but made few permanent settlements, most of 
those made being mere military trading posts. Thus while 
the territory occupied by the English colonies was small as 
compared with that claimed by France, the population of the 



The French in North America 71 

English colonies by 1750 had reached almost two millions 
while the total French population in North America was less 
than one hundred thousand. 

III Relations of the French with the Indians 

1. Value of Indian Friendship 

As the French were very anxious to secure the fur 
trade, and as the Indians controlled most of this, it was 
necessary for the French to be on friendly terms with them. 
The French were very successful in winning this friend- 
ship, and this was the real source of their power. Except 
in the case of the Iroquois the French were much more 
successful in dealing with the Indians than were the 
English. 

2. Enmity of the Iroquois 

By aiding the Algonquins in a battle against another 
tribe, the French early gained the bitter hatred of the Iro- 
quois or Five Nations, the most powerful Indian confede- 
racy in North America. As the Iroquois occupied the 
territory between the St. Lawrence country and the Eng- 
lish colonies, the French were compelled to move westward 
in their advance, and were kept from occupying New York, 
and from coming in contact with the English. This gave 
the English time to develop and gather strength for the 
coming contest. 

IV Early Conflict Between French and English 

I. Conditions Making Coniiict Inevitable 

When the English colonists had settled up most of the 
territory east of the Appalachian Mountains it was but 
natural that they should pass over these mountains into 
the Ohio Valley in search of new farming lands. When 
they did this it meant that the two nations must fight. If 
the English occupied this valley the French in Canada 



72 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

would be separated from those in the southern part of the 
Mississippi valley, and thus the French plans for a great 
Empire in America would be overthrown. 

2. Conditions Leading to English Success 

The permanent character of the English colonies, and 
the greater size of the English population made it impos- 
sible for the French to check the steady advance of the 
English. 

3. King William's, Queen Anne's and King George's Wars, 

i68p-i/'48 

These three wars were caused by trouble between 
France and England in Europe. It was but natural that 
the conflict should extend to the French and English colo- 
nies in America. But the results of these wars in America 
were not important. In each war the French and their 
Indian allies destroyed some English settlements on the 
frontier, and massacred the settlers. All that the English 
in America gained was Nova Scotia and some military 
training. During King George's War they captured 
Louisburg, an important military post, but by the treaty 
at the close of the war it was returned to France. The 
French secured no new territory. 

V The French and Indian War, 1754-1763 

The fourth and last war between the French and English 
in the New World began, not in Europe, as had the other 
three, but in America. The first battle of this war was fought 
in 1754. This was two years before war was formally de- 
clared between France and England, and during this time 
several battles had been fought. In 1756 the war between 
the French and English in America became a part of one of 
the greatest wars of modern times. England and Frederick 
the Great of Prussia united against France, Spain, Austria, 
and Russia. In Europe this war was known as the Seven 



The French in North America 73 

Years' War, and lasted from 1756 to 1763. In America it 
was known as the French and Indian War and lasted from 
1754 to 1763. In a most heroic struggle, Frederick the Great, 
aided by England, was a match for his combined enemies in 
Europe and by the treaty signed in 1763 by all the nations 
engaged in the war, Prussia did not lose a foot of territory. 
The war was most disastrous to France. The treaty which 
closed it marked the temporary end of French Colonial Em- 
pire, but France has since secured some valuable colonial 
possessions. She lost all her possessions in North America, 
and nearly all of those in India. England secured the greater 
part of the territory that France lost, and gained more by the 
the war than any other nation. 

I. Beginnings 

The passing of English settlers over into the Ohio valley 
caused the French to construct a series of forts from Lake 
Erie to the site of the present city of Pittsburg. A small 
force under command of Washington was sent against 
Fort Duquesne, the last of these forts built, but was de- 
feated by a much larger force of the French and their 
Indian allies, and was forced to surrender. This was 
Washington's first and only surrender. 

After Washington's defeat England sent over a thou- 
sand soldiers under General Braddock to aid the colonies. 
This army was increased by the colonies, and with a force 
of about twenty-two hundred, Braddock marched from 
Virginia against Fort Duquesne. He was surprised on 
the march by a force of French and Indians from the 
fort, and defeated with great loss. This defeat was largely 
due to Braddock's ignorance of frontier methods of fighting. 

Expeditions sent by the colonies against Niagara, Crown 
Point and Ticonderoga were unsuccessful, and during the 
next two years the important forts of Oswego and Wil- 
liam Henry were captured by the French. 



74 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

2. The War Under Pitt's Direction, 1258-I/63 

William Pitt became Prime Minister of England in 
1757, with full control of military operations. He was 
the greatest war minister England has ever had. He at 
once reorganized the English army, removing the incom- 
petent officers and replacing them with men of ability. 
He raised a force of fifty thousand soldiers for the war 
in America, half of which was furnished by England and 
half by the colonies, and placed it under competent gen- 
erals. 

From the time Pitt came into power the English were 
almost uniformly successful. Three of the most impor- 
tant French forts, Duquesne, Frontenac, and Louisburg, 
were captured by the English in 1758. The capture of 
Quebec and of Montreal in 1759 and 1760, completed the 
overthrow of the French in America. 

3. Treaty of Peace: Results of the War 

Although the last battle of the French and Indian War 
was in 1760, the treaty of peace was not signed until the 
end of the Seven Years' War in 1763. Among other things, 
this treaty gave to England all the territory east of the 
Mississippi except the island on which New Orleans stands. 
To Spain was given this island and all the territory west 
of the great river. France retained nothing in North 
America except two small islands in the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence. The results of the war made it plain that the 
English language and English institutions should be su- 
preme in North America. The English colonies could now 
develop in peace so far as any foreign nation was con- 
cerned. The war brought about conditions which helped 
to bring on the Revolution, and the training which the 
colonists received in this contest with the French prepared 
them for the conflict with the Mother countrv. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA 
Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the French in North America, 
each pupil should read the second number of Hart's "Source Readers in 
American History," pp. 71-150. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page 
ix.) Compare the Spanish and English colonies in the New World with 
regard to purpose of settlement. Describe the Spanish settlements made 
in the territory which now comprises part of the United States. Why did 
Spain not make more settlements in this territory? How was this related 
to the French and English colonies in North America? Give a careful 
description of the explorations and settlements made by Cartier and Cham- 
plain. Why is Champlain called the "Father of New France"? What part 
of the continent was explored by Joliet and Marquette? Discuss La 
Salle's explorations. (Each pupil should draw a map showing the routes 
of these explorers and the territory claimed by France by virtue of these 
explorations.) Describe the manner in which the explorers took posses- 
sion of the country for France. Explain carefully how the French and 
English colonies differed as to purpose of settlement. Explain carefully 
how this affected the character of the settlements of the two nations. Com- 
pare the English and French colonies in respect to location, extent, and 
size of population. What caused the great difference in population? 

Why did the French wish to be friendly with the Indians? How did 
they gain the friendship of the Indians? Explain carefully why the Eng- 
lish were less dependent on the Indians than were the French. How did 
the French make enemies of the Iroquois? Explain carefully how this 
affected the growth of the French colonies. How did the friendship of 
the Iroquois for the English affect the growth of the English colonies? 
How did the French occupy the territory which they claimed ? Explain 
carefully why the English and the French colonists were sure to come 
into conflict lin North America. Why was it natural that the English 
should pass over the Alleghanies into the Ohio Valley? Why did the 
French wish to prevent this? Explain carefully why the French were 
unable to check the westward advance of the English. Tell what you 
can about King William's War. About Queen Anne's War. About King 
George's War. 

Tell what you can of the nature and results of the Seven Years' War 
in Europe. How was the French and Indian War in America connected 
with the Seven Years' War in Europe? Why did the French build a 
series of forts from Lake Erie to the site of the present city of Pitts- 



76 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

burg? Why did the EngHsh object to this? Tell all you can about Wash- 
ington's expedition against Fort Duquesne. What was the effect of Wash- 
ington's defeat on the Indians in the Ohio Valley? What was its effect 
on the English ? Explain carefully why the English colonists were so 
slow in preparing for war. Give a careful discussion of Braddock's march 
and defeat. (Each pupil should draw a map that will show the position 
of all the French forts in the West, and the place where Braddock was 
defeated.) Describe the result of the English expeditions against Forts 
Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 

What was the effect of all these defeats on the English ? Describe 
the success of Montcalm in 1756 and 1757. (Each pupil should draw a 
map that will illustrate all the battles fought in Canada and on the northern 
frontier of the English colonies.) Give a careful discussion of William 
Pitt and his war policy. Describe the taking of Louisburg. How did the 
capture of Louisburg aid the English? Describe fully the capture of 
Quebec. Compare the French general Montcalm with the English general 
Wolfe in character, ability, and courage. What was the effect of the war 
on the history of America? What was the direct effect on the English 
colonists? (Each pupil should draw a map that will show all the changes 
in territory that were caused in America by this war.) 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Compare the French and English settlements in location, extent, pur- 
pose of settlement, character, and population. Discuss the relations of the 
French with the Indians. Compare the attitude of the French toward the 
Indians with that of the English. Discuss the enmity o^ the Iroquois to 
the French and its effect on colonial history. Describe the conditions 
which made war between the French and English inevitable. Discuss 
the conditions leading to English success in this struggle. Discuss in a 
general way King William's, Queen Anne's, and King George's wars. 
Discuss the Seven Years' War in Europe and its connection with the 
French and Indian War in America. Discuss the scope of the French and 
Indian War. Describe the work of Washington in this war. Discuss the 
work of Pitt. Discuss the results of the war, including territorial changes 
and political effects. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 
D. 125-129 

A INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 
D. 130 

I Commercial Industries 

1. The Southern Colonies 

(a) Products 

D. 130-134; H. I. 63-64, 156-159; Mc. 104; 
Ma. 31, 114-115; G. 116; T. 40-44; M. 
58-59, 1 16-117, 124 

(b) Plantations 

Ma. 115-116 

1. Relation to Growth of Cities and Manu- 

factures 

D- 134-135; ^Tc. 104 

2. Relation to Growth of Slavery 

D. 135-136; Mc. 105; M. 61 

2. Neiv England 
(a) Occupations 

1. Agriculture 

D. 136-137; Mc. 101-102; Ma. 113; G. 
no; M. 86 

2. Manufactures 

D. 137-138; Mc. 98-99; Ma. 113-IM; 
T. 80-81; M. 97 

3. Fisheries. Trade and Commerce 

D. 138-139; H. I. 139-140; H. II. 50-51, 
59-60; Mc. 101-102; Ma. 114; M. 86 



78 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

(b) Relation of Physical Conditions to Slavery 
D. 139-140 

3. The Middle Colonics 

(a) Occupations 

1. Agriculture 

D. 140-141 ; H. I. 147, 159-161 ; Mc. 
103; Ma. 114; G. 118 

2. Manufactures 

D. 141-142; Mc. 103; Ma. 113, 114; 
M. 76 

3. Commerce 

D. 142-143; H. II. 37-39; Mc. 103; 
Ma. 114 

(b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery 

D. 143-144 

II Professional Life 

1. The Ministry 

D. 144-148; T. 32-33; M. 149 

2. Medicine 

D. 148-149 

3. Lazv 

D. 149-150 

B SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

(In connection with this subject each pupil should read the 
first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 165-169, and the 
second number, pp. 1-69.) 

D. 150-153; H. I. 67-70, 160; Mc. 93-94, 100; T. 83-84; 
M. 147-148 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 79 

I The Southern Colonies 

1. Classes of Society 

(a) The Negro Slave 

D. 153-159; H. I. 157-159; H. II. 34-35; 
Mc. 105; Ma. 98-99; M. 61 

(b) Indented Servants 

D. 159-161; H. I. 175; Mc. 97-98, 105; Ma. 
98; T. 42; M. 61-62 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

D. 161-165; H. I. 149-152; Ma. 98-99; M. 
146-147 

2. Dress and Amusements 

D. 165-168; H. I. 152, 224-229; H. II. 19-26; 
Ma. 99-107; G. 116-118; T. 81; M. 147-148 

II New England 

1. Classes of Society 

Ma. 98-99 

(a) Slaves 

(b) Indented Servants 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

D. 168-170 

2. Social Distinctions 

D. 171 ; Ma. 99 

3. Dress and Amusements 

D. 172-173; H. I. 152-155, 180-182, 192-194; 
H. II. 26-27, 39-42, 211-212; Ma. 99-107; G. 
144-145; T. 81 

III The Middle Colonies 
I. Classes of Society 

Ma. 98-99 



80 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

(a) Slaves 

(b) Indented Servants 

D. 174-175; H. I. 174, 184, 188-191; H. II. 

52-55 

(c) The Middle Class 

(d) The Upper Class 

D. 175-176; Mc. 38; Ma. 99-107; G. 119- 
121 ; T. 105; M. 70-71. 

2. Dress and Amusements 

D. 176-179; H. II. 17-19, 184, 187 

C GOVERNMENT 

I Local Government 

The County, Tozvnship and Parish 
D. 179-191 

II Colonial and State Government 

D. 191-192 

1. State Government 

D. 192 

(a) Legislative Department 

D. 192-193 

(b) Executive Department 

D. 193-194 

(c) Judicial Department 

D. 194-195 

2. Colonial Government— Departments 

D. 195 

(a) Legislative Department 

D. 196-197; H. II. 61 ; Mc. 106, 33, 35, 46, 
57; T. 104, 22, 31-32, 43; M. 60, 85-86, 
105 



Institnticnal Life in the Colonies 81 

(b) Executive Department 

D. 198-200; Mc. 106-107; H. II. 61 ; T. 31 ; 
M. 64-66, 76, 95, 105, 120 

(c) Judicial Department 

D. 200 

3 Colonial Government — Classes 
D. 198 

(a) Charter Government 

D. 198; Mc. 105; G. 123-127; T. 104-105 

(b) Proprietary Government 

D. 198; Mc. 105-106; T. 104 

(c) Roval Government 

D. 199; Mc. 106-107; T. 105 

III National Government 

D. 201-202 

IV Relation of Colonial Government to Present State 

Government 
D. 202-203 

D RELIGION: GROWTH OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY 

I Religious Liberty at the Present Time 

D. 203-204 

II Religious Persecution in Europe 

D. 204-205; Mc. 36, 41, 47, 49; M. 76-77 

III Religious Persecution in the Colonies 

D. 205-207; Mc. 36, 48; Ma. 111-113; T. 75-78; M. 
62, 83, 86-88, 91-93, 94, 104-107 

IV Churches Have Not Been Responsible for Religious 

Persecution 
D. 207-208 



82 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

V Religious Liberty in the United States: Causes of 

Its Growth 
D. 208-209 

E EDUCATION 

(In connection with this subject each pupil should read the 
first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 201-233.) 

I Comparison of Colonial Schools with Those of the 

Present Time 
D. 210 

II Condition of Schools in England 

D. 211 

III The Southern Colonies 

D, 211-214; H. I. 216-217, 224-226; Ma. 40-41, 108, 
109; G. 116; T. 82; M. 62 

IV New England 

D. 214-219; H. I. 109-111, 206-210, 214-216, 232-233; 
Ma. 63-64, 107, 108, 109; G. 113; T. 81-83; M. 
88-89, 149 

V The Middle Colonies 

D. 219-222; H. I. 218-224; Ma. 108, 109; G. 119; 
M. 1^9-150 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

The Five Institutions 

INTRODUCTORY 

Five institutions or organizations exist among the people of 
every nation, state, city, and community. They are business, or 
industrial life; society, or social life; the state, or government; 
the church, or religion ; and the school, or education. These five 
institutions, in one form or another, may always be found, even 
among savages. All that any community, or its individuals, can 
think or do, must be thought or done along one or more of 
these lines. They include the entire life and work of every person 
and community. 

Relation of the Individual to these Five Institutions 

Among civilized people these institutions are plainly marked, 
and every person bears some relation to each of them. The 
nature of his work in relation to one or more of them determines 
to what extent he is useful or harmful to the community, state, 
or nation. The useful, intelligent citizen follows some business 
or occupation successfully ; he contributes to the happiness and 
social life of the people in whose society he lives ; he takes an 
active interest in government or politics ; he takes an active inter- 
est in ethical or religious questions ; and he interests himself 
in the educational affairs of his community. 

Importance of the Study of Institutional Life 

What is true of an individual in this respect is true also of 
a nation. It is very important, therefore, in studying the history 
of a nation to study carefully its institutional life. A nation 
should be judged not so much by the battles which it has fought, 
or by the territory which it owns, as by the condition of its insti- 



8t THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

tutions. So far we have been studying the colonies mainly as 
related to their political history, or the institution of government, 
which includes among other things the wars fought and the ter- 
ritory secured. While it is of importance to learn about the insti- 
tution of government, it is of even more importance to learn 
about the other four institutions. We shall now study the con- 
ditions of these four institutions in the colonies, and review the 
institution of government. 

Effect of Topography, Climate, and Soil on Industries 

In the study of the growth and development of the nation the 
difference between the topography, climate, and soil of the sev- 
eral sections deserves the most careful consideration. This differ- 
ence determined to a certain extent that the South should be, until 
after the American Civil War, an almost strictly agricultural 
country ; that much of the land should be divided into large plan- 
tations ; that almost the entire time and energy of the southern 
people should be devoted to raising tobacco, rice, indigo, and 
cotton ; and that the labor of the South should be performed 
by negro slaves. It also determined to a certain extent that 
the people of the northern colonies should devote a large part 
of their time and energy to commerce and manufacturing ; that 
the agricultural land should be divided into a large number of 
small farms ; that many different kinds of agricultural products 
should be raised ; that the labor of the North should be per- 
formed by freemen instead of by slaves ; and that the social and 
political conditions of the North should be quite different from 
those of the South. 

Effect of Topography, Climate, and Soil on Slavery 

The difference between the topography, climate, and soil of 
the North and the South caused this great difference between 
the industrial, social, and political conditions of the two sections, 
by making slavery very profitable in the South and of very little 
profit in the North. Because slave labor could not be used with 
much profit in the North, slavery soon ceased to exist there ; and 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 85 

because slave labor could be used with great profit in the South, 
slavery soon became firmly established in that section. The fact 
that slavery existed in the South and did not exist in the North 
caused the industrial, social, and political conditions of the two 
sections to become more and more unlike and to drift farther 
and farther apart, until the American Civil War destroyed slavery. 
It follows, therefore, that differences in topography, climate, and 
soil caused slavery to exist in the South and not in the North ; 
that slavery caused the industrial, social, and political conditions 
of the North and South to become more and more unlike ; that 
the great difference between the industrial, social, and political 
conditions of the North and South caused the Civil War; and 
that the Civil War, by destroying slavery, has caused these con- 
ditions in the two sections to become more and more alike, and 
has thus unified the nation. From all this it becomes plain that 
the difiference between the topography, climate, and soil of the 
North and South, and the different industrial conditions which 
this difiference brought about, deserve the most careful considera- 
tion of the student of our country's history. 

The Topography, Climate, and Soil of the Southern Sec- 
tion AND OF New England are Distinctly Different 

By far the larger part of the country formerly included in 
the southern colonies and in all the southern states that border 
on the Gulf of Mexico is level, in fact almost flat. This country 
is drained by broad rivers which flow into the sea or into the 
Gulf. The soil is naturally very rich ; the rainfall is abundant ; 
the climate in summer is very hot, and with exception of Mary- 
land and the northern part of Virginia, mild and pleasant in 
winter. The surface of New England is made up largely of 
hills and mountains, and is drained by short, rapid rivers. The 
soil naturally is not very fertile, and the climate in the winter 
is cold and severe. Both the broad, fertile plains of the South, 
and the hills, mountains, and small valleys of New England, 
were covered with a great, dense forest. 



86 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

The Topography, Climate, and Soil of the Middle Colonies 

The conditions of the topography and cHmate of this section, 
which embraced the colonies of New York, New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, and Delaware, are about midway between those of the 
southern section on the one hand and of New England on the 
other. The soil, unlike that of New England and like that of 
the southern region, is rich. The rainfall is abundant, which is 
true also of both the other sections. The climate is not so cold 
as that of New England, and not so mild and pleasant as that of 
the southern territory. The surface of the land is not divided 
into a large number of small valleys, as is the case in New Eng- 
land ; neither does it consist of broad, extensive plains, as is the 
case in the southern section. 

INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 

The institution affected most directly by topography, climate 
and soil is Business, or Industrial life; and it therefore will be 
the first institution discussed. Farming; engaging in some pro- 
fession, as law, medicine, or the ministry; mining; manufactur- 
ing; the carrying on of trade or commerce; and all other things 
which men do to make a living, comprise the institution which is 
called Business, or Industrial life. In order to add clearness to 
the treatment, the professions of law, medicine, and the ministry 
will be treated under the sub-head — Professional Life in the Colo- 
nies. The other factors of Industrial life in the colonies will be 
treated under the sub-head — Commercial Industries. In treating 
the "Commercial Industries," each of the three groups of col- 
onies will be taken up separately because the conditions of each 
group differ from those in the other two groups, and this differ- 
ence had an important effect on some of the other institutions. 

[ Commercial Industries 
I. The Southern Colonies 
(a) Products 

Tobacco is and has been from early colonial times one 
of the chief southern products. After its discovery by 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 87 

the first settlers of Virginia it gained rapidly in popu- 
larity in England and raising tobacco soon became the 
chief occupation of the colonists of Virginia and Mary- 
land. In fact the whole life of these two colonies cen- 
tered around its production. It was used as money. A 
man's wealth was counted in pounds of tobacco. Laws 
were made regulating its production and the quality 
exported. Rice, indigo and cotton were the principal 
products of North and South Carolina and Georgia. 
These three products were as important in the three 
most southern colonies as was tobacco in Virginia and 
Maryland, and, like tobacco, they caused the growth of 
large plantations.* Rice was the most important of these 
products, especially in South Carolina, which led in its 
production. Comparatively little cotton was raised until 
after the Revolution and the invention of the cotton gin. 
The wealth of the southern colonies came largely from 
the exportation of tobacco, rice and indigo. Wheat, 
hogs and cattle were also raised, and resin and turpentine 
produced. 

(b) Plantations 

1. Relation to Growth of Cities and Manufactures 

The large number of rivers made it easy for most 
of the plantations to maintain their own warehouses. 
The vessels that carried the exports called at these 
warehouses on the different plantations along the 
rivers, and brought the things needed by the planter, 
but which were not produced on his plantation. This 
custom was the main reason why there were no large 
cities or manufactures in the southern colonies. There 
was no inducement for either to grow. 

2. Relation to Growth of Slavery 

The production of tobacco, rice, indigo and cotton 
required a large amount of labor. Slave labor was 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

cheap and well suited to this kind of work, while white 
labor was extremely hard to obtain. The planter soon 
came to depend almost entirely on the negro slave for 
labor, and as the plantations increased in size and num- 
ber, the demand for slave labor became more and more 
urgent, and the number of slaves increased rapidly. 

2. Neiv England 
(a) Occupations 

1. Agriculture 

The division of the country into small valleys pre- 
vented the growth of large plantations in New Eng- 
land, and the climate and soil prevented the extensive 
production of any one staple. It was hard for any 
New England colony to raise more food than it re- 
quired for its own use, but the variety of products was 
much greater than in the southern colonies. These 
conditions made it almost impossible for New Eng- 
land to become wealthy and prosperous from farming, 
and the people therefore devoted a large part of their 
time and energy to fishing, commerce and manufac- 
turing. 

2. Manufactures 

Although the colonial policy of England hampered 
the growth of manufacturing, many things were made 
and the foundation was laid for the great manufactur- 
ing establishments that sprang up after the Revolu- 
tion. Shops, where every form of trade was plied, 
lined the streets of the towns. The farmer made most 
of his tools and furniture and his wife spun the flax 
or wool, wove the cloth and made the clothing. The 
swift running rivers furnished the power for thou- 
sands of saw mills and grist mills. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 89 

3. Fisheries. Trade and Commerce 

One gi«\-at source of wealth was the fisheries, of 
which the whale and cod were especially profitable. 
Large quantities of fish and fish oil were exported. 

The New England colonists gave a great deal of at- 
tention to commerce. New England built the best 
ships in the world. She built all her own vessels and 
many for other nations. She carried nearly all her ex- 
ports and imports in her own ships, and her ships be- 
came an important factor in the commerce of the West 
Indies and of Europe. In spite of her poor soil, and 
the fact that her imports were much larger than her 
exports, the wealth from her extensive commerce, to- 
gether with the industry of her people, made New Eng- 
land wealthy, and caused the growth of many pros- 
perous towns and cities. 

(b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery 

In New England natural conditions forced the people 
into varied occupations in which slave labor could not be 
used with profit. Slavery, therefore, was gradually 
abolished and free labor made the basis of industrial 
life. There was no important class of people in New 
England that opposed slavery on moral grounds. Its 
growth was controlled by industrial conditions which 
were due to topography, climate and soil. 

3. The Middle Colonies 

(a) Occupations 

I. Agriculture 

Nearly all kinds of farm products were raised in the 
middle colonies. The fact that the climate and soil 
were suited to many products tended to prevent the 
growth of large plantations and the extensive produc- 
tion of only a few staples. Farm produce and cattle 
were raised and sold in large quantities. 



90 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

2. Manufactures 

Manufacturing was carried ora to considerable ex- 
tent. While there were no large manufacturing es- 
tablishments, the beginnings were being made. In 
New York cloth and glass were manufactured and saw 
mills and grist mills were numerous. In Pennsylvania 
clothing was made and iron ore was mined and ex- 
ported. Ships were built at Philadelphia, and the grist 
mills of Pennsylvania made into flour much of the 
wheat raised in Maryland and Virginia. 

3. Commerce 

Philadelphia and New York were two of the three 
leading commercial cities of the colonies. Their ships 
carried the produce of the colonies to nearly all the 
civilized nations of the world and brought back goods 
in return. 

(b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery 

Industrial conditions in the middle colonies made 
slavery of more value than in New England, but of much 
less value than in the South. Therefore the number of 
slaves was smaller than in the southern colonies and 
larger than in New England. 

II Professional Life 

I. The Ministry 

The ministry was the only one of the three learned pro- 
fessions that held in the colonies anything like the high 
position they hold today. In New England especially the 
ministers were men of fine character, good education, and 
strong influence. They were the leaders of the people, not 
only in religion, but in education, literature and even in 
law making. In later years they lost much of their influ- 
ence in the government, but retained their leadership in 
other respects. In the middle colonies also the ministers 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 91 

ranked high. They were able and energetic, and exerted 
great influeno'p on the life of the people by establishing 
schools and by improving moral conditions. No one church 
was so powerful as was the Congregational church of the 
Puritans in New England, and hence the ministers did not 
have so much influence in government afifairs. In most 
of the southern colonies the Episcopal Church was the state 
church, and it was supported by public taxes. As the 
ministers received their salaries whether they performed 
their duties or not, and as many of them were unfit for 
their work, they exerted much less influence for good 
than the ministers in the other colonies. After the Revo- 
lution, when the revenue from public taxes was taken away 
from the Episcopal Church, it secured a much abler class 
of ministers and they became a positive factor for good in 
the community. The ministers of the other churches in 
the South were able men and tried to establish schools, 
but without success. 

Medicine 

As has been stated before, medicine as a profession 
amounted to but very little in the colonies, especially 
before 1750. This profession developed earliest and most 
rapidly in Pennsylvania and in this respect Massachusetts 
came next. From the very first in Pennsylvania there were 
some physicians who had secured their educations in the 
universities of England and were well qualified to practice 
medicine. These did all they could to advance the profes- 
sion. In 1734 the first medical work in the colonies was 
produced. This was written by Dr. Cadwalder from Lon- 
don, who later gave a course of lectures on anatomy and 
physiology, and in 1750 became one of the first physicians 
of the hospital in Philadelphia. In 1760 Dr. Sheppen and 
Dr. Morgan established in Philadelphia a medical college 
which five years later became a part of the University of 
Pennsylvania. There were fewer quacks in Pennsylvania 



92 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

than in any of the other colonies. In New England, and 
especially in the southern colonies, d|:ug-gists and barbers 
often practiced medicine and surgery along with their 
regular occupations, and this was the main reason why the 
people had so little respect for the medical profession. 
There were but few good doctors in the southern colo- 
nies, — fewer than in New England. Many of the ministers 
of early New England had studied medicine before leaving 
England. They frequently acted as doctors and were 
better than most of those engaged in the profession. After 
these early ministers died the profession for a time fell 
into the hands of quacks who knew little about medicine.' 
But the ability of the doctors soon improved and the profes- 
sion became more and more respected. Just before the 
Revolution there were many able physicians in New Eng- 
land and they were highly respected. New England, how- 
ever, was behind Pennsylvania in the matter of hospitals 
and medical schools. 

3. Law 

The profession of law \vas of more importance in New 
England and Pennsylvania than in any of the other colo- 
nies just as was the case with the profession of medicine. 
Virginia, however, just before the Revolution, had as many 
able lawyers as New England and more than Pennsylvania 
or any of the other colonies. For a long time in New 
England, and for a longer time in Virginia, there were 
so few able lawyers, that the profession could hardly be 
said to exist at all. In Pennsylvania, on the other hand, 
there were a number of fairly good lawyers from the very 
first and the profession was held in high esteem, which 
was not the case in any of the other colonies. But about 
1750 the profession of law in New England was repre- 
sented by a large number of very able lawyers, and a little 
later the same was true in Virginia. Among the new 
England lawyers at this time were John Adams, Samuel 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 93 

Quincy, Samuel Gridley and James Otis ; among those 
in Virginia were Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry and 
George Mason. These men were just in time to prepare 
the colonies for, and to guide them through, the Revo- 
lutionary \\^ar ; and to help make, and to help put into 
effect, the present Constitution of the United States. Many 
of them made a world-wide reputation. To their wisdom 
and good common sense the people of the United States 
owe a great debt of gratitude. 



SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

The amusements of people, the social relations among the vari- 
ous classes of society, treatment of neighbors, customs of dress, 
daily manner of speaking and acting toward others, and all other 
things which interest or amuse men in a social way, constitute the 
social life of a people. Many of these social factors are closely 
related to industrial conditions. The social conditions in the 
southern colonies, in New England, and in the middle colonies, 
differed, and this difference was due largely to the difference in 
the industrial conditions in these groups of colonies. In fact, 
the more closely the history of any nation is studied, the plainer 
it becomes that its five institutions are closely related. The 
social conditions of a nation are closely related to each of its 
other four institutions, — business, government, religion and edu- 
cation. Therefore, when studying any one of the five institutions 
in any nation, it is of importance to understand the relation of 
that institution to each of the other four. 

At the present time it is not easy to realize how the people 
in the colonies lived, dressed, and amused themselves. This is due 
largely to the difference between the conditions which existed in 
the colonies and those which exist at the present time. It therefore 
becomes necessary to note carefully some of the conditions which 
made the social life in the colonies differ so much from the social 
life of today. Among the more important conditions that affected 
social life in the colonies were the newness of the country, the 



94 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

poor means of transportation and communication and, in the 
southern colonies, the large plantations and mode of farming. 
The people of the colonies lived in the edge of a mighty forest 
that covered the entire country. At times this forest must have 
seemed to the lonely settlers as vast as the sea and as silent as 
death. They did not know how far this great forest extended, 
or what wild animals or races of men it contained. This life in 
the edge of a great, silent, and unexplored forest, and on the edge 
of the sea, affected the customs and habits of the people. The 
effect of this solitude on the lives of the southern people was 
emphasized by the almost total lack of cities and towns, and by 
the nature of plantation life. Nearly all the people lived on plan- 
tations which were usually far apart. This caused the people 
on the plantations to visit each other less frequently than they 
would have done had they lived in cities or close together on small 
farms. The poor means of transportation and communication in 
colonial times tended to make the life of the settlers still more 
lonely. The great improvements in modes of travel and communi- 
cation since then have had a profound effect on social conditions. 
At the present time people, while eating breakfast, can read in 
their morning paper about all the important things that have 
taken place up to midnight of the day before, in all parts of the 
world reached by the telegraph. Often a new style of dress, or a 
new invention of some kind, will be used in many parts of the 
world within a few months after it is first made. It was quite 
different in the colonies. There were no railroads, or telegraphs, 
or telephones in the world at that time. People could not travel 
on the land except by walking, riding or driving. All mail and 
news had to be carried by the same means, and it should be 
remembered that there were few roads then and that most of these 
were usually in a very bad condition. If Boston had burned, 
it would have been five or six days before the news would have 
reached New York and many more days before the people in 
Virginia would have heard of it. This slow means of travel and 
communication made the life in the colonies, especially in the 
southern colonies, much more isolated and lonely than it would 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 95 

have been had the railroads and telegraphs existed. It also 
affected the customs and habits of the people by preventing them 
from becoming acquainted readily with the customs and habits 
of others. In studying the social conditions of the colonies it is 
well to remember all these other conditions which helped to make 
the social conditions of that time so different from those of today. 

I The Southern Colonies 

I. Classes of Society 

At the time of the Revolution the total population of the 
southern colonies was about thirteen hundred fifty thous- 
and. Of this number about six hundred twenty thousand 
were negro slaves. As a whole the people of the southern 
colonies consisted of four classes — the negro slave, the 
white servants, the middle class, and the upper class. The 
middle class which consisted of those who owned the 
smaller farms and plantations, shaded gradually into the 
upper class, which consisted of those who owned the larger 
plantations. In the three most southern colonies there 
were only three classes to be found, the middle class being 
absent in South Carolina, and the upper class being absent 
in North Carolina and Georgia. 

(a) The Negro Slave 

Far below all other classes was the negro slave. He 
was under the absolute control of his master, and could 
be bought and sold like any other property. Many of 
the slaves were savages, brought direct from Africa, 
and they were kept in dense ignorance in order that 
danger of insurrection might be lessened. In some of 
the colonies the negroes far outnumbered the whites, 
and the white people lived in constant fear of uprisings. 
This dread is shown plainly in many severe laws relating 
to the negroes. They were not allowed to leave the 
plantation to which they belonged without permits, and 



96 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

if they ran away might be killed by any one on sight. 
A white man could not be imprisoi^ed for killing a negro, 
but he might be fined. These severe laws would indicate 
that the negroes were badly and evenly cruelly treated, 
but as a rule such was not the case. The negroes em- 
ployed on the small farms and as house servants were, 
as a rule, well treated in all the colonies. On the large 
plantations of South Carolina and Georgia they did not 
fare so well, for many of the planters lived in Charles- 
ton and left the control of their plantation and negroes 
to overseers, who often overworked the slaves and 
treated them cruelly. 

(b) Indented Servants 

Indented white servants were found in all the colo- 
nies. An indented servant was a person sold to some 
one for a certain number of years. During the term of 
the indenture or contract he belonged to his master, 
and could not leave without his consent, but after he 
had served the time specified he became free. These 
indented servants and the poor whites comprised the 
second class of society in the colonies, but, because of 
race and ability, were far above the negro slave. In 
character they ranged from English, Scotch and Irish 
prisoners of war to the common criminal. Many boys 
and girls were stolen in England and sent over to the 
colonies, and some honest and hard-working, but poor 
people became indented servants in order to pay for their 
passage to America. As a class, however, the indented 
servants were of poor character, for the most part trans- 
ported criminals and the scum of the cities of England, 
and when they became free, formed the most undesirable 
class in the colonies. The laws relating to indented 
servants were very severe. During their term of ser- 
vice their condition was little better than that of the 
negro slave. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 97 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

The middle class in the southern colonies was com- 
posed of traders, merchants and small land holders, while 
the large land owners composed the upper class. The 
traders and merchants were held in contempt by the; 
land owners, but there was no material distinction 
between the large and the small land owners. The 
owners of the large plantations were much like the 
country gentlemen of England, except that they were 
even more independent and aristocratic. They ruled 
the colonies in which they lived and w'ere given cordial 
support by all the other classes. They were brave and 
emphatic in their defense of English liberty, and from 
this class came some of the leaders during the struggle 
for independence. Virginia alone, in this period, gave 
to the nation Washington, Jefferson, ]\Iadison, Marshall 
and Henry. The conditions on the large plantations 
tended to develop men of strong character and ability. 
There were more than five hundred persons on some of 
these plantations, and their management required con- 
siderable ability. Frequently the owners of large plan- 
tations trained their slaves in the various trades so 
that very httle outside help was required. 

2. Dress and Aninsemcnts 

In dress the upper classes followed the fashions in 
London, wearing rich, gay colored silks and velvets, rare 
laces and jewels, and powdered wigs. The plantations 
being so large and so far apart, there w^as less social life 
in the South than in some of the northern colonies. In 
Charleston, however, there was more gay social life than 
in any other city in America. The southern land holders 
possessed great hospitality, and love for social life and out 
door sports. Horse-racing and hunting were their two 
principal amusements. Rural field sports were also very 
popular and were usually under the direction of the 
planters. 



98 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

II New England 

I. Classes of Society 

The total population of New England at the time of the 
Revolution was about seven hundred thousand. Of this 
population the number of slaves did not exceed fifteen 
thousand. As in the South, there were four classes of 
society — the slaves, the indented servants, the middle 
class, and the upper class. 

(a) Slaves 

The small number of slaves in New England was due 
largely to industrial conditions, and the industrial con- 
ditions of New England were the result, at least to a 
large extent, of its topography, climate and soil. The 
slaves were employed almost exclusively as house ser- 
vants. They were treated kindly, owing to their close 
personal relation with their masters, and the laws regard- 
ing them were much milder than in the South. 

(b) Indented Servants 

There were comparatively few members of this class 
in New England. They were treated kindly, and after 
they became free, they usually succeeded in going into 
business for themselves. 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

Most of the members of these two classes were of 
good English stock and there was no distinct line 
between them. The middle class was composed of 
farmers, merchants, and tradesmen, and formed the 
mass of the population. This class was much better 
educated in New England than in the other colonies. 
There was as distinct and as strong an aristocracy in 
New England as in the southern colonies but it rested 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 99 

on a somewhat different basis. The upper or aristo- 
cratic class was composed not of large land holders 
but of those whose families for generations had been 
noted for their wealth and education or service to the 
government ; of those who were well educated ; of those 
who had performed valuable public service ; and of those 
who had been very successful as merchants or in com- 
merce. 

2. Social Distinctions 

Nearly all offices were filled by men of the upper class. 
The son of a carpenter or a bricklayer or of any one 
engaged in a similar occupation could not hold office. In 
church people were seated according to their social position, 
and people were compelled to occupy the seats assigned 
to them. A student on entering college was assigned a 
position according to the social standing of his father. 
It is rather surprising that in a new country where labor 
was considered honorable that so many of the every day 
affairs of life should have been so much affected by 
social position. 

3. Dress and Amusements 

The nature of the Puritan religion had a great deal to 
do with the dress and amusements of the New England 
people. The Puritan religion made New England life 
earnest, simple and solemn. It taught that amusements 
and undue hilarity and pleasure were the works of Satan. 
The wealthy class wore clothes of fine material but simple 
in style. The outdoor amusements consisted of hunting, 
fishing, sleighing and various athletic sports. After New 
England was placed under the royal governors the church 
lost much of its power in government affairs and the life 
of the people became brighter and more cheerful. While 
theatres were not countenanced until after the Revolution, 
balls and parties came to be an unquestioned part of social 
life. L V 1 -y. 



100 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

III The Middle Colonies 

I. Classes of Society 

At the time of the Revohition the total population of 
the middle colonies was about six hundred and seventy 
thousand of which number about sixty-five thousand were 
slaves. With the exception of the large Dutch land hold- 
ers along the Hudson and Mohawk rivers in New York, 
the people of the middle colonies were divided into but 
three well defined classes — the slaves, the indented ser- 
vants, and the class corresponding to the middle class in 
Virginia and in New England. 

(a) Slaves 

As in New England, nearly all the slaves were em- 
ployed as house servants, and consequently they were 
usually well treated. Although the number of slaves 
was small, at times there was fear of a slave uprising 
in the large cities. All such attempts, or even indica- 
tions of such attempts, met with severe punishment. 

(b) Indented Servants 

The number of indented servants was larger than 
in New England, and they were not so well treated. 
With the exception of Virginia, Pennsylvania contained 
more indented servants than any other colony. 

(c) The Middle Class 

The great mass of the people belonged to this class 
which was vigorous, earnest and progressive. There 
were fewer English in proportion to the population in 
the middle colonies than in any of the other colonies. 
New York contained a large number of Dutch, and the 
German, French, Scotch and Irish comprised a large 
part of the population of Pennsylvania and Delaware. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 101 

(d) The Upper Class 

The only distinct upper class or aristocracy in the 
middle colonies was made up of the large Dutch land 
owners, whose ancestors had received grants of land 
along the Hudson and JNIohawk rivers when the Dutch 
first settled New York. The owners of these estates 
had even more authority and power than the large land 
owners of the South. Each of the larger estates was 
entitled to one representative in the legislature of the 
colony. In some cases the owner held almost absolute 
power over his tenants, even to inflicting the death 
penalty for violation of laws. 

2. Dress and Amusements 

In the country and small towns the life of the people 
was quiet and simple. As a rule the clothes were home- 
made of home spun cloth. The amusements were few and 
simple, consisting of corn huskings and spinning bees, 
and of simple out door sports. There was more social 
life in the country than among the New England farmers. 
On festive occasions there was a good deal of drinking 
and dancing. In the cities there was much gay social life. 
In dress, the wealthier class in Philadelphia and New York 
followed the London fashions closely, both men and 
women wearing silk and velvet and rich, bright colored 
materials. The principal amusements were balls, parties 
and theatres, and clubs for the young men. With the 
exception of Charleston, gay social life was enjoyed to a 
fuller extent in New York and Philadelphia than in any 
of the other cities in the colonies. 



102 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

GOVERNMENT 

In beginning the formal study of government, it is suggested 
that a general view of the subject be presented to the pupil by 
some such discussion as the following: 

Each pupil attending school lives with his parents, and is 
therefore one member of a family. He is also a member of the 
school that he attends. He is a citizen or member of the county 
in which he lives, and whether he lives in a town, a city, or in 
the country, he is a member of one of the parts or subdivisions of 
the county. He is also a member of the state in which he lives, 
and as the states make up the nation, he is a member of the na- 
tion, or, as is usually said, a citizen of the United States. Each 
family, school, subdivision of the county, county, state, and the 
nation also, have certain rules or laws which are called govern- 
ment. Each pupil, therefore, lives under several different forms 
of government. He lives under the government of his parents 
or guardian ; under the government of his teacher and the school 
trustees or board of education ; under the government of the city 
or other division of the county in which he lives ; under the gov- 
ernment of the county in which he lives ; under the government 
of the state in which he lives ; and under the government of the 
United States. Everyone lives under these different forms of 
government and must obey the rules or laws of each. Men and 
women of course are not under the rules of the family and 
school in the same way that a pupil is, but they must obey the 
general laws relating to the family and school. With so many 
laws it would seem that the laws of the family, school, county, 
state and nation would conflict and interfere with each other. 
They do not, however, and this is most remarkable. All these 
laws work in harmony. This is not the result of chance or acci- 
dent. Our ancestors for thousands of years have been working 
at the different divisions of government and making laws for 
each. A long time ago when our ancestors were savages the 
laws were rude and simple. Ever since then the laws have gradu- 
ally been changed, increased in number and made better, and at 
the present time they are being changed and made better each 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 103 

year. The laws have been changed and are being changed in 
order that boys and girls and men and women may live happier 
and more useful lives. 

I Local Government 

I. The County 

The governments of the state and of the United States 
are known as the state and national governments and that 
of the county and all smaller divisions is known as local 
government. To-day in nearly all the states west of the 
Appalachian mountains and in many of those east, the 
county is the most powerful unit or division of local gov- 
ernment. Its powers and duties are next to those of the 
state, and they are carried out by a board of men called 
commissioners or supervisors, who are elected by the peo- 
ple. In nearly all the counties these county boards must 
levy taxes and take general charge of the money affairs 
of the county, look after the schools, construct bridges and 
roads, and look after the poor. In addition to this board 
of commissioners or supervisors, there are a number of 
other county officers, as sheriff, treasurer, assessor, tax 
collector, superintendent of schools, auditor, recorder and 
judge. From this it will be seen that the county is a very 
important unit of government. The county did not always 
have these great powers, but in all the colonies except 
New England and South Carolina the county was the 
most important unit of local government. In New Eng- 
land it possessed some important powers. In each county 
there was a county court composed of men elected by the 
people and of others appointed by the governor, which 
could interpret the laws in certain cases, lay out public 
roads, and oversee the township officers. It was not so 
important as the township, however. In the South, ex- 
cept in South Carolina, the county had control of all im- 
portant local affairs. In Virginia the county court whose 
members were appointed by the governor, acted as a 



104 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

judicial body and had general charge of the affairs of the 
county, such as levying taxes, care of the public money, 
and appointing some of the county officers. In all the 
colonies except South Carolina and those of New England, 
the county was the local unit that elected delegates to the 
legislature or law making body of the colony. In the 
middle colonies the county was especially important. The 
Pennsylvania plan of county government has been adopted 
by a large majority of the states. In that colony the county 
board consisted of three commissioners elected by all the 
people of the colony, and had great power in local affairs. 
A number of other county officers were elected by the 
people and considerable power given to them. Each 
county so far as its local affairs were concerned, was a 
little republic. Most of the states which have adopted this 
plan have changed it somewhat. In New York the mem- 
bers of the county board were called supervisors and were 
elected by, and represented, the different townships of 
the county. This plan also has been copied in some of 
the states. 

2. The Township 

In New England each county consisted of townships. 
Townships were formed before the early counties were 
organized. This was due to the fact that the Puritans 
came over in congregations and established towns. A 
town in New England included not only the town proper, 
but the adjacent country also. In New England, there- 
fore, "Town" and "Township" meant the same in so far 
as it relates to a unit of local government. These town- 
ships had by far the most power in local affairs. Meet- 
ings called town meetings were held by all the voters in 
the township, and at these meetings people could levy 
taxes and direct the management of the money raised, 
could elect delegates to the legislature of the colony, 
could elect township officers, and could provide for schools. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 105 

In fact they could act on all the more important local 
affairs. While the township has lost some of its powers, 
it is still the most important unit of local government in 
New England. The principle of township government 
exists in most of the states at the present time but in a 
different sense than in Xew England. Most of the country 
west of the Appalachian mountains has been divided into 
townships by the government of the United States, and 
these divisions are often used for purposes of local gov- 
ernment. In many states the counties have been divided 
into districts, precincts, or townships, but not the six- 
mile-square townships established by the National Gov- 
ernment. These smaller divisions are used simply for the 
management of purely local affairs, and do not affect gen- 
eral county government. 

3. TJie Parish 

In South Carolina each county was divided into sub- 
divisions called parishes or districts, and they were the 
most important unit of local government. They had much 
the same power as the township in New England, and the 
county was of even less importance than in New England. 
The parish remained the unit of local government in South 
Carolina until after the Civil War, when the county was 
given control of local affairs. In Virginia the counties 
were divided into parishes, but the officers of the parish 
had little to do except to look after the aff'airs of the 
Episcopal Church. 

II Colonial and State Government 

Next to the county in the affairs of government is the 
state. The states in matters of government have control of 
all those things that the people have not given to 'the national 
government of the United States or which are not controlled 
by the county or the smaller units of local government. The 



106 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

people of the United States have given to the national gov- 
ernment control of all those things which affect the nation 
as a whole, and have reserved to the states all other powers 
of government. That part of these reserved powers which 
affects more directly the people of the entire state, is given 
to the state government. The other part of these reserved 
powers belongs to the county and the smaller units of local 
government. The division of all these powers of govern- 
ment, — national, state, and local — is stated and defined in the 
national and state constitutions, which have been adopted by 
the people either by direct vote or by representatives whom 
they have elected. The state constitutions give to the state 
government the power to outline and define in many ways 
the powers of local government, but as the state officers 
are elected by the people, they carry out the wishes of the 
people in these matters. Thus it follows that in the United 
States the people are the source of all power, and that they 
have the power to change a law or even the form of gov- 
ernment. 

I. State Government — Legislative Department 

National, state, and local governments consist of three 
departments — the legislative, the executive, and the ju- 
dicial. The legislative department makes the laws ; the 
executive department executes or enforces them ; the ju- 
dicial department interprets, or tells what the law means, 
and applies them to the affairs of life. The legislative de- 
partment in all the states consists of two houses. The 
upper house is the smaller, and in every state is called 
the Senate. The lower house is usually called the Assem- 
bly or House of Representatives. The legislative depart- 
ment of the national government also consists of two 
houses. The upper is called the Senate and the lower the 
House of Representatives. The legislative department 
in the county consists of the board of commissioners or 
supervisors, and the legislative department of cities or 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 107 

Other smaller units of local government consists of similar 
bodies. The members of the legislative department in all 
the states and in all the units of local government are 
elected by the people. The state legislatures have im- 
portant power and have control of many things, "All 
of the general laws under which our local governments 
and schools are organized, those referring to the state and 
local courts and procedure in these courts, those dealing 
with the making and enforcement of contracts, the trans- 
fer of property, marriage and divorce, with the prevention 
of the spread of diseases, with the incorporation of busi- 
ness houses — all of these form only a part of the vast num- 
ber under the charge of the legislatures, the whole, cov- 
ering a set of subjects of the first importance not only 
because there are so many, but because all are of such in- 
terest to us in our home and business life." 

State Government — Executive Department 

In all the states the highest executive officer is the Gov- 
ernor ; in the national government, he is the President of 
the United States ; and in the larger towns he is called 
the mayor. In the counties the various county officials 
attend to the executive business. While the Governor is 
at the head of the executive department of the state, there 
are a number of other executive officers in the state who 
assist in enforcing the laws. Among the other more im- 
portant executive officers of each state are the Lieutenant- 
Governor, Secretary of State, Controller, Treasurer, Su- 
perintendent of Public Instruction, and Attorney-General. 
The governor is always elected by the people, and so are 
the other executive officers, except in a few states where 
some of them are appointed either by the governor or by 
the legislature. The lieutenant-governor usually presides 
over the Senate when it is in session and takes the gov- 
ernor's place if he resigns or dies, and when he is absent 
from the state. The other executive officers just named 



108 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

perform the duties of their various offices. All local offi- 
cers also must assist in enforcing the laws of the state, 
and this is a great help to the state officers. The governor 
is by far the most important executive officer in the state. 
He is commander-in-chief of the state soldiers or militia, 
and when the other state or local officers cannot enforce 
the laws, he may call on the soldiers to assist in their en- 
forcement. 

3. State Government — Judicial Department 

The judicial department of each state consists of a 
supreme court and of a number of lower courts. The ju- 
dicial department of the national department also con- 
sists of a supreme court and a number of lower courts. 
Next to the supreme court of the state are the circuit or 
district courts (in some states) ; next to these are the 
county courts ; and next to the county courts are the city 
courts and the justices' courts. The judges in all these 
courts are elected usually by the people but in several 
states some of them are appointed by the governor or 
legislature. The members of the supreme court are elected 
usually by the people of the entire state, and a judge in 
a lower court is elected by the people in that division of the 
state of which he is a judge. The city courts and justices' 
courts try the less important cases ; the county courts 
those which are of still more importance and from the 
last named courts cases may be appealed to the supreme 
courts. Many cases may be appealed from the lowest 
courts in the state up through all the others, and some cases 
may be appealed from the state supreme court to the 
United States courts. 

4. Colonial Government — Legislative Department 

The colonial governments, like the state governments 
of to-day, consisted of three departments — legislative, ex- 
ecutive, and judicial. The legislative department in all 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 109 

the colonies, like those in all the states to-day, consisted 
of two houses. The lower house was usually called house 
of representatives, the assembly, or house of burgesses. 
The members of the lower house, as is the case in all the 
states to-day, were elected by the people. But there was 
one important difference. In all the colonies, no one could 
vote for a member of the lower house or for any other 
officer of the colony, unless he owned a certain amount 
of property, whereas to-day in the United States no prop- 
erty qualification is required of a voter. The upper branch 
of the legislature in the colonies was called the council and 
consisted usually of twelve members, called assistants or 
members of the Governor's council. Except in Connecti- 
cut and Rhode Island, the members of the council were 
either appointed by the governor or by the lower house, 
as was the case in Massachusetts, and approved by the 
governor. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, the members 
of the upper house were elected by the people. Thus it 
becomes plain that except in these two colonies, the gov- 
ernor, by his power of appointment, practically controlled 
the upper branch of the legislature. It should be remem- 
bered, however, that with the exception of Connecticut and 
Rhode Island, the upper house, or council, had very little 
to do with making the laws. The main duty of the council 
was to advise the governor and to assist him in carrying 
out the duties of his office. 

5. Colonial Governuient — Executive Department 

The executive department in each colony consisted of 
the governor and the governor's council or upper house 
of the legislature. In Rhode Island and Connecticut the 
governors were elected by the people, and in Pennsylvania, 
Delaware and Maryland they were appointed by the pro- 
prietors. In all the other colonies they were appointed 
by the king. The royal and proprietary governors pos- 
sessed the important powers of vetoing laws passed by 



no THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

the legislatures, and of appointing judges and other offi- 
cers. They were continually quarrelling with the lower 
house except in Rhode Island and Connecticut where the 
governor and both hoiises worked together harmoniously. 

6. Colonial Government — Judicial Department 

The judicial department was merged into the executive 
department in the colonies, the governor and his council 
acting as the supreme judicial body of each colony. The 
minor judicial officers were appointed by the governor, 
although in a few cases they were elected by the people. 

7. Colonial, Government — Classes 

Colonial government may be divided into three classes, 
on the basis of the manner of selecting the governor. In 
the charter government the people chose the governor. 
In the proprietary government the proprietor selected 
him, and in the royal government he was appointed by the 
king. But these names as to form of government are of 
very little importance. The important facts are that in 
all the thirteen colonies the lower, and by far the more 
important, branch of the law-making body was elected 
and controlled by the people ; that in all the colonies except 
Connecticut and Rhode Island, the council or upper house 
of the legislature was not elected by the people, but was 
appointed by the governor; and that in all the colonies, 
with the same two exceptions, the governor was not elected 
by the people, but was appointed either by the king or by 
the proprietor. 

(a) Charter Government 

A charter government was one established by a writ- 
ten contract between the king and the colonists, stating 
the share which each should have in the government of 
the colony. This charter or contract could not be 
changed legally without the consent of both parties. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 111 

During the eighteenth century, Connecticut and Rhode 
Island were the only real charter colonies. Massachu- 
setts was about half charter and half royal. 

(b) Proprietary Government 

A proprietary government was established when the 
king granted a large tract of land to some individual, 
who, by the terms of the grant, had the right to organize 
a colony and to appoint the governor. During the 
eighteenth century, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Mary- 
land were the only proprietary colonies. 

(c) Royal Government 

In the case of a royal colony, the king appointed a 
governor. The royal colonies were directly under the 
control of the king, but as stated above, the people con- 
trolled the legislative department. During the eighteenth 
century all the colonies, except the charter and pro- 
prietary colonies, were royal colonies. 

III National Government 

The national government of the colonies was the same as 
that of England. The English Parliament and the English 
king were the highest government authority in England and 
they were also the highest government authority in the col- 
onies. The English king and Parliament bore, in a general 
way, the same relation to the colonies that the national gov- 
ernment of the United States at the present time bears to the 
various states. When the people of the colonies became in- 
dependent, they established the national government to take 
the place of the English king and the English Parliament. 

IV Relation of Colonial Government to Present State 

Government 

We have already seen that local government to-day is the 
direct outgrowth of local government in the colonies. From 



112 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

a study of colonial government it becomes plain, that the 
legislative, executive and judicial departments of the state 
governments in the United States at the present time are 
simply the modification and expansion of these departments 
in the colonies. The colonial legislature consisted of a lower 
and an upper house. The lower house corresponds to the 
lower house in the state legislature to-day, and there have 
not been many important changes in its nature. The council, 
or upper house, in the colonies corresponds to the state sen- 
ate, or upper house, in the state legislature at the present 
time, but the council has undergone a great change. The 
members of the senate are elected by the people and the 
senate has as much power in making laws as the lower house. 
The governor is at the head of the state executive department 
to-day, as he was at the head of that department in the col- 
onies, but he is elected by the people. The same close re- 
lation between colonial times and the present time, exists in 
the judicial departments. The different courts in the col- 
onies correspond closely with the courts in the states at the 
present time, except that most of the judges are now elected 
by the people, and are separate and distinct bodies, whereas 
in the colonies the courts were often the legislative and ex- 
ecutive departments. The colonial governments of Connecti- 
cut and Rhode Island were so much like those of to-day, 
that their charters were adopted as their state constitutions 
and remained in efifect until long after the Revolution, the 
only important change being the omission of the king's name 
in the public records and documents. The charter of Con- 
necticut remained the constitution of that state until 1818, 
and the charter of Rhode Island remained in efifect until 1842. 
The greatest change in government since colonial times has 
been in the election of officers, and in the right to vote. 
Nearly all officers — local, state, and national — are now elect- 
ed by the people, whereas in the colonies many of them were 
appointed. In the colonies no one who did not own a cer- 
tain amount of property could vote for any officer of the 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 113 

colony, or for any local officer. At the present time no prop- 
erty qualification is required of any voter anywhere in the 
United States. All this means that the people have become 
much more democratic since colonial times. 



RELIGION: GROWTH OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY 

I Religious Liberty at the Present Time 

If the government of any civilized nation at the present 
time should kill or imprison or punish in any way, a person 
because he belonged to a certain church, its action would 
be severely condemned by almost every one. Scarcely any 
one to-day believes that a man should be killed or punished 
in any way because he may be a member of the Methodist, 
Presbyterian, Catholic or any other church. The right of a 
person to think and to act in religious matters as he may de- 
sire, so long as he does not interfere with the rights of others, 
is now conceded by almost everybody. So thoroughly is this 
principle established and accepted that the government of the 
United States, or of any other civilized nation, would use its 
entire power to protect its citizens in their rights to enjoy 
quietly and peacefully their religious ideas. 

II Religious Persecution in Europe 

The right of a person to enjoy quietly and peacefully his 
religious ideas is called "religious liberty." Strange as it 
now seems people have enjoyed religious liberty but for a 
very short time. Less than two hundred and fifty years ago, 
men and women were put to death in almost every nation, 
simply because they wished to belong to some other church 
than the one protected by the government. In Spain, France 
and Germany thousands were killed for this reason and many 
more were imprisoned or otherwise punished. Hundreds 
were put to death in England for the same reason. In all 
of these countries men and women were burned to death and 



114 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

tortured in other ways, because they would not uphold the 
established or state church — that is the church protected by 
the government. In 1686 thousands of Huguenots were mas- 
sacred in France. Women and children were dragged from 
their beds in the night and murdered because of their re- 
ligious ideas. From 1685 to 1700 fully two hundred thous- 
and Huguenots left France in order to escape these religious 
persecutions. From 1550 to 1650 more than one hundred 
thousand perished in the religious wars of Europe. 

HI Religious Persecution in the Colonies 

These persecutions for religious reasons were not restricted 
to the Old World. Some of the English colonies in America 
did the same thing. For a long time in Massachusetts, men 
and women were not permitted to establish any church ex- 
cept the Congregational or Puritan church, or to teach or 
preach any religious doctrine except that of the Congrega- 
tional church. The government of Massachusetts whipped, 
imprisoned, and banished men and women because of their 
religious ideas. These persecutions did not stop with such 
punishments. Four Quakers were hanged in Boston — two 
men in 1659, O"^ woman in 1660, and another man in 1661. 
These four people were hanged by order of the court, and 
because they demanded the right to preach the doctrine of 
their church. It is absolutely incorrect to say that the Puri- 
tans came to New England for the purpose of establishing 
religious liberty. They came to the New World in order 
to escape the persecutions of the Episcopal church in Eng- 
land. They had no intention whatever of permitting any 
church to be established in New England except the Congre- 
gational church. Some of the other colonies were almost 
as severe as the colonies of Massachusetts and New Haven. 
In Virginia there were severe laws against the members of 
all churches except those of the Episcopal church. Members 
of other churches were imprisoned and banished from the 
colony. The Catholics first settled Maryland and granted 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 115 

religious liberty to every one in the colony, but as soon as 
the members of the Episcopal church secured control of the 
colony, they passed severe la\YS against the Catholics and the 
members of other churches. With but few exceptions, Cath- 
olics were persecuted in all the colonies. Rhode Island was 
very liberal in religious matters. Pennsylvania establishe<l 
complete religious liberty from the very first. The members 
of all churches, including those of the Catholic church, could 
worship in this colony without the least fear of persecution. 
In 1789 the Congress of the Confederacy recommended the 
religious policy of Pennsylvania for adoption by all the states. 
After the Revolution there was complete religious liberty in 
all the states, and no public money whatever has since been 
used for the support of any church. 

IV Churches Have Not Been Responsible for Religious 
Persecution 

It is but natural that people to-day should condemn, 
severely, the religious persecutions referred to above. But 
it should be remembered that the people of to-day would have 
done the same thing had they lived in those times. Neither 
can any church be held responsible for these persecutions. 
In Europe, outside of England, the Catholic church directed 
the persecutions ; in England, and in Virginia and Maryland 
the persecutions were directed by the Church of England or 
the Episcopal church ; and in New England it was done in the 
name of the Puritans or Congregational church. In fact, 
up to about two hundred and fifty years ago, the leading or 
state religion of almost every nation during the past twenty- 
five hundred years has persecuted and killed those who did 
not agree with it on religious questions. It may be said 
that religious persecutions have been due to the fact that the 
great mass of the people were not as well educated nor as 
highly civilized as they are at the present time. It has been 
true in the history of the world, that when a large number of 



116 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

the people in a nation became fairly well educated they have 
demanded political liberty, that is, the right to make the 
laws which they must obey. When the people of a nation 
have secured the right to make their own laws, they have 
usually become more liberal in religious matters. This tends 
to prove that religious liberty in a nation follows closely 
general education and political liberty, and that it does not 
depend on the attitude of any church. Man by nature is 
narrow and unjust in religious matters, and it has required 
long centuries of education and civilization to make him 
broad and liberal along these lines. 

V Religious Liberty in the United States: Causes of its 
Growth 

The United States was one of the first nations to establish 
complete religious liberty. At the beginning of the Revolu- 
tion most of the colonies had already established religious 
liberty and the Revolution swept away the last vestige of 
religious persecution. One of the main things that caused 
the growth of religious liberty in the colonies was the es- 
tablishment of public schools. For centuries the churches of 
the leading religion of a nation had control of education. 
This was also true in early Virginia and most of New Eng- 
land, but gradually in nearly all the colonies, the govern- 
ment took control of education. This made education morr 
general and of a higher grade. It also prevented any church 
from using any public money to establish schools in which 
children were taught its own doctrines. In a republic like 
the United States a free public school system which shall not 
be under the control of any church and in the schools of 
which the doctrines of no church shall be taught must be 
maintained. The churches may, and most of them do, main- 
tain private schools, but the American people insist, and 
wisely, that they shall not control, in any way, the free public 
school system. Another thing that helped to cause the rapid 
growth of religious liberty in the colonies, was the separation 



Insiitiitioual Life hi the Colonies 117 

of Church and State. In the colonies of Massachusetts and 
New Haven, the church and state were united at first, and 
in Virginia and several of the other southern colonies, public 
money was used for the support of the church. But the Puri- 
tan church was soon separated from the government in New 
England, and while the Episcopal church in Virginia re- 
ceived public money until about the time of the Revolution, 
it had little or no control of the government of that colony. 
This separation of church and state helped the growth of re- 
ligious liberty because when a church loses control of the 
government it is placed on an equal footing with all the other 
churches, and has no power to persecute anyone. This is as 
it should be. ReHgion is a question that each person must 
settle for himself — it is a question between each person and 
the Supreme Being. The churches should have no control 
whatever over the government or over the free public school 
system, and no church or person should interfere with, or 
persecute, any one because of his religious ideas. 

EDUCATION 

Comparison of Colonial Schools with Those of the 
Present Time 

Very few of the boys and girls who are now attending the 
public schools in the United States realize what a great ad- 
vantage they have over those who went to school fifty or even 
twenty-five years ago. The primary, the grammar and the 
high schools have improved wonderfully during the past 
twenty-five years. Eighty-five years ago there were very 
few free public schools in the United States, and they did 
very poor work as compared with those of to-day. The av- 
erage high school now is doing as good work and is ofifering 
as high grade courses of study as were Harvard and Yale 
Colleges in 1800, and this was one hundred seventy years 
after Boston was founded, and one hundred sixty-four 
years after Harvard College was founded. It has been 



118 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

said by one writer that the grammar schools to-day are doing 
as good work as did WilHam and Mary College in Virginia 
one hundred twenty-seven years ago, at the beginning 
of the Revolution. For one hundred fifty years after Vir- 
ginia and New England were first settled there were prac- 
tically no public schools of any kind in any of the southern 
colonies. While it is true that soon after they were founded 
all the New England colonies except Rhode Island passed 
laws which compelled every town with fifty or more families 
to maintain a public school of some kind, these laws were not 
always enforced. From the very first, however, there were 
a number of schools in New England, and in matters of edu- 
cation she was far ahead of all the other colonies. Nearly 
everybody in New England could read and write, but a ma- 
jority of the children were taught at home. 

II Condition of Schools in England 

The free public school system of England was not estab- 
lished until 1870, thirty-three years ago. When the colonies 
were first settled, and for a long time afterwards, educa- 
tion in England, as compared with that of to-day, was in a 
most wretched condition. In 1700 more than half of the 
English people could not read or write their own names, 
and as late as thirty years ago (1873) twenty out of every 
hundred could not. When the English colonies in America 
were founded, there were no public schools in England. 
There were a number of church and other private schools, 
but the great mass of the boys and girls did not attend these. 
Therefore when the Englishmen who founded the colonies 
left the mother country, there were no public schools, and 
education was controlled by the church and by private in- 
dividuals. It is but natural that these men, when they set- 
tled in the New World, should follow the same plan of edu- 
cation. New conditions in the colonies caused this plan to 
be changed somewhat. In the southern colonies the change 
was for the worse ; in the New England and in some of the 
middle colonies the change was for the better. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 119 

III The Southern Colonies 

When the colonies were settled it was but natural that 
educational affairs should be left to the church as they had 
been in England. As the ability of the ministers was, as a 
rule, poor, educational affairs were much worse in the south- 
ern colonies than in England. Other causes of the poor con- 
dition of education in the southern colonies were the manner 
of living and the opposition of the royal governors to any 
system of education. The plantation life hindered the build- 
ing up of towns or schools, and education was restricted 
largely to the upper class. The children of the wealthy 
studied under tutors, and the sons often finished their educa- 
tion abroad. The royal governors opposed general educa- 
tion on the ground that it would make the people discontented 
and hard to govern. There were few schools in any of the 
southern colonies, those few being established by private in- 
dividuals or the churches. Maryland was the only one that 
made any real effort to establish schools that should 
be controlled by civil power. A college was established 
in 1692 by royal charter from King William and Queen 
Mary and given their names. The work done by this college 
before the Revolution was no better than that done to-day 
in the grammar schools, but it was the only college in the 
southern colonies before the Revolution. 

IV New England 

The church and the ministers determined the kind and 
character of education in New England, just as they had in 
the southern colonies. The ministers of New England were 
of the ablest class in the colonies, well educated, earnest and 
upright. The Puritan religion demanded that every man and 
woman should read and understand the Bible and it there- 
fore became the duty of the ministers to see to it that all the 
people should receive enough education to enable them to do 
this. As early as 1647 Massachusetts Bay Colony had a law 
providing that every town containing fifty or more families 



120 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

should maintain a school. This is the first instance in modern 
history that the civil power of any colony, state or nation 
provided for a public school system. The passage of this 
law was due to the Puritan religion and to the Puritan min- 
isters. Other laws were passed regarding the establishment 
of schools in all the New England colonies and thus the 
foundation of our present public school system was laid. The 
New England colonies also laid the foundation for some of 
the greatest universities in the United States. Harvard, 
Yale, Dartmouth and Brown Colleges were all established 
during the colonial period. 

V The Middle Colonies 

In the matter of education the middle colonies were be- 
hind New England and ahead of the southern colonies. In 
New York a number of fairly good schools was established 
and partly supported by the government. In New Jersey 
there were a few good schools maintained by the towns or the 
Presbyterian church. Outside of Philadelphia, education in 
Pennsylvania and Delaware was in a very poor condition. 
From the first, Philadelphia maintained schools with only a 
small tuition fee. It was one of the most progressive cities 
in the colonies in all matters of education and learning. 
Franklin was her leading citizen and the greatest scholar 
in the colonies. It was due to his efforts that the University 
of Pennsylvania which ranked first among all colonial col- 
leges was founded. Princeton and Kings (Columbia) Col- 
leges were also founded during this period. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

Introductory 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain carefully what is meant by the institutional life of a nation. 
Show carefully by illustrations how the life of every citizen is related 
to each of the five institutions. Why should a nation be judged largely 
by the condition of its institutions? Explain why topography, climate, 
and soil are important influences in history. Explain fully and carefully 
how topography, climate, and soil have affected the history of the United 
States. (All of the questions given above are somewhat difficult, but they 
are very important and should receive most careful consideration.) Make 
a careful comparison of the topography, climate, and soil of the southern 
colonies and the New England colonies. Compare the topography, climate, 
and soil of the middle colonies with the topography, climate, and soil of 
the New England and the southern colonies. 

INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Why do topography, climate, and soil affect business or industrial 
conditions more than any other of the institutions? Describe fully what 
industrial life includes. What were the leading southern products? Tell 
all you can about the culture of tobacco in the southern colonies. Give a 
careful explanation of why laws were passed to regulate its production 
and the quality exported. Discuss the production of rice and indigo in 
the southern colonies. Discuss the production of cotton in these colonies. 
Tell to what extent other products were raised in each of the southern 
colonies. Explain carefully how topography, climate, and soil encour- 
aged the growth of large plantations in the South. Discuss the selling and 
buying of produce and goods on the plantations. Discuss the effect of 
large plantations on the growth of cities. Explain carefully how the large 
plantations affected the growth of slavery. Why were there few free 
laborers in the South? How did the lack of free labor affect the growth 
of manufactures, commerce, and similar industries ? 

Why were there no large plantations in New England? Why did the 
farmers of New England raise a great variety of products instead of a 



122 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

few staples, as did the planters of the South? What caused many of the 
people of New England to engage in other occupations besides farming? 
Describe the manufactures of New England; Tell what you can of the 
fisheries. Discuss the conditions of trade and commerce, and explain 
carefully their effect on the wealth and prosperity of New England. Why 
was there so little slavery in New England? If instead of a hilly country, 
poor soil, and cold winters, New England had a warm, pleasant climate, 
and consisted of broad, fertile plains, what would have been the effect 
on industrial life and on slavery? Describe carefully the condition of 
farming in the middle colonies, and explain carefully how this condition 
of farming in these colonies was related to topography, climate, and soil. 
Compare the condition of farming in the middle colonies with its condi- 
tion in the southern colonies and in New England. Describe the manu- 
factures of the middle colonies. Why did England try to prevent the 
growth of manufactures in the colonies? How did this affect the colonies? 
Describe the commerce of Philadelphia and New York. Explain care- 
fully the effect of industrial conditions in the middle colonies on slavery 
Compare this effect with the effect of these conditions on slavery in New 
England and in the southern colonies. What does all this prove as re- 
gards the effect of topography, climate, and soil on the history of the 
United States? 

Compare the condition of the professions of law and medicine in the 
colonies with the condition of these professions to-day. Describe the 
character and position of the ministers of New England. Explain very 
fully why the ministers were of so much importance and had so much 
more influence in New England than in any of the other colonies. In 
what way and why did the ministers of Massachusetts lose much of their 
influence after that colony became a royal province? Describe the char- 
acter and work of the ministers of the middle colonies. What is a state 
or Established church? Is it good public policy to have a church supported 
by public taxes? What can you say of the ministers of the Established 
church in the southern colonies? Why did they have less influence than 
the ministers of the other colonies or of the other churches in the South? 
When the Episcopal church ceased to be the state church, what change 
took place in the character and influence of its ministers? Describe the 
character and work of the ministers of the other churches in the southern 
colonies. 

What was the general condition of the medical profession in the 
colonies? Tell what you can of this profession in Pennsylvania, noting 
the ability of the doctors, the medical schools, and the hospitals. What 
can you say of the profession of law in the colonies? What change was 
there in the condition of this profession just before the Revolution? Com- 
pare the southern with the middle and New England colonies in respect 
to the character and ability of their lawyers. 



Questions and Topics 123 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

What is meant by the institutional life of a nation? Show by ilkistra- 
tions how the life of every citizen is related to each of the five institu- 
tions. Why are topography, climate, and soil important influences in his- 
tory? Discuss the topography, climate, and soil of the South and their 
effect on the industrial life of the southern colonies. Discuss the topog- 
raphy, climate, and soil of the middle colonies and New England, and 
their effect on the industrial life of these sections. Discuss the causes of 
the growth of large plantations in the South. Discuss the relation of 
the plantation system to the growth of slavery and to the growth of cities. 
Discuss the effect of slavery on manufactures and commerce in the 
South. Compare the industrial conditions of New England with those of 
the southern colonies, and discuss the cause of difference. Discuss the 
commercial industries of the middle colonies. Discuss the conditions 
which tended to cause the growth of slavery in the South and to cause 
abolition in the North. Show the effect of this on the industrial and 
political life of the nation. Discuss the character and position of the min- 
isters in the colonies, comparing those of different sections of the coun- 
try. Discuss the condition of the medical profession in the colonies. Dis- 
cuss the profession of law in the colonies. 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 
Questions for Class Recitations. 

(In connection with the questions on Social Conditions, each pupil 
should read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in American 
History," pp. 165-199, and the second number of these readers, pp. 1-69. 
See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Describe fully what con- 
stitutes social life. In what way is the institution of society related to 
the other institutions? Explain fully the more important conditions af- 
fecting social life in the colonies, and compare those conditions with 
some of the conditions which exist to-day. Name and describe carefully 
the four classes of society that existed in the southern colonies. (Each 
pupil should draw a map of the southern colonies and indicate plainly on 
it the strip of country in which the large plantations and the slave popu- 
lation existed.) What was the condition of the negro slave when he 
was first brought to America ? Why was he not educated in the southern 
colonies? Describe the laws relating to the negroes. Why were such 
laws passed? Tell all you can about the actual treatment of the slaves. 
Explain carefully why there was a difference in the treatment of slaves 
in the extreme southern colonies — Georgia and South Carolina — and those 
southern colonies farther north. Give a careful discussion of some of the 
results of slavery. Describe the character of the indented servants of the 
southern colonies. Give a full description of how they were treated. 



124 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

Compare their condition with tliat of the slaves. What distinctions 
existed between the middle and upper classes in the southern colonies? 
In what way did slavery affect the attitude of the upper class toward 
tradesmen and merchants? Describe the character and position of the 
southern gentlemen. What can you say of their patriotism? Name some 
of the leading patriots of our nation who belonged to the upper class in 
the southern colonies. Show how the conditions of plantation life tended 
to develop men of strong character and ability. Describe the industrial 
life on a large plantation. Describe the dress of the upper class. What 
amusements were most popular with the Southerners? Describe the rural 
field sports. 

What classes of society existed in New England? Describe each class. 
Describe the treatment of the slaves and indented servants. Upon what 
basis did the distinction between the middle and upper classes rest in 
New England? How did this differ from the Southern basis of aris- 
tocracy? How did a man's social position in New England affect his 
prominence in politics ? How did class distinctions enter into the every- 
day life of the people? How did they affect college life? What was the 
effect of the Puritan religion on the dress and amusements of the people? 
Describe the amusements of the New England people. What effect did the 
coming of the royal governors have on the social life of New England? 

Compare the middle colonies with those of New England and the south- 
ern colonies in regard to white and slave population. What classes of 
society were found in the middle colonies ? Compare the treatment of 
slaves in these colonies with their treatment in the southern colonies and 
in New England. What was the character of the indented servants of 
the middle colonies? What proportion of the total population of the 
middle colonies was of English descent? Compare this proportion with 
the proportion which existed in New England and in the southern colonies. 
Of what did the aristocracy of New York consist? Compare the owners 
of large estates on the Hudson with the large land-holders of the South 
in respect to position and power. Describe the dress and amusements of 
the people of the country and small towns. Describe the dress and 
amusements of the upper classes in the cities. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the general conditions affecting social life in the colonies. Dis- 
cuss briefly the classes of society existing in the colonies. Discuss the 
condition of the slaves in the colonies, comparing their condition in the 
various colonies. Discuss the middle class in New England and in the 
southern and middle colonics. Discuss the character and position of the 
upper class in New England, and in the southern and middle colonies. 
Discuss the social distinctions existing in New England and in the South. 
Discuss the dress and amusements of the people of the colonies. 



Questions and Topics 125 

GOVERNMENT 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Under what dififerent forms or divisions of government does each 
person live? Briefly describe each division. Explain carefully how each 
person is a member of each of these divisions. Explain carefully why 
the laws of these different forms of government do not conflict. How 
did these different forms of government and these different laws come to 
exist? Why do we have so many different divisions of government and 
so many different laws? What is national government? Explain care- 
fully what constitutes local government. What is the most important unit 
or division of local government? Who carries out the powers and duties 
of the county? How are the members of this board selected? By what 
two names are the members of this board known? Do most of the states 
call them supervisors or commissioners? How are the supervisors elected? 
How are the commissioners elected? Explain carefully the powers and 
duties of the county board of commissioners or supervisors. Name some 
of the other more important county officials. (Before taking up the next 
topic, the teacher and pupils should make a careful study of the duties 
and powers of all their county officials, and also of their city, township, 
and school officials.) 

Compare the powers_ of the county in the colonies with its powers 
to-day. Compare the powers and duties of the county in the New Eng- 
land, the southern, and the middle colonies. Explain carefully what con- 
stituted the township in New England. Explain carefully what consti- 
tuted the town meeting. Give a careful explanation of the duties, powers, 
and value of the town meeting. Compare the powers and duties of the 
town meeting in New England during colonial times with those which 
the county court then possessed there. Compare the powers and 
duties of the town meeting in New England at the present time with those 
which the county officials now possess there. Explain carefully what 
constituted the parish and district in South Carolina during colonial times. 
Compare carefully the powers and duties of the county in South Carolina 
during colonial times with those which the parish and district possessed 
there at that time. Compare carefully the duties and powers of the county 
in South Carolina at the present time with those which the parish and 
township now possess there. What is the nature of the parish as it ex- 
ists in Louisiana to-day? 

What were the powers and duties of the parish in Virginia during 
colonial times? What was the county board in Virginia called? What 
were the members of this board called? How were they elected? Ex- 
plain carefully the powers and duties of the county court in Virginia. 
During colonial times, how did the powers and duties of the county in 



126 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

Virginia compare with the powers and duties of the county in Georgia, 
North Carolina, and Maryland? Explain carefully the changes which have 
taken place in the county in these states since colonial times. To what 
extent did the Virginia county affect the organization of the county in the 
West? Compare the powers and duties of the county in the middle 
colonies with those which the township and parish possessed at that time. 
Why does the county as it existed in the colonies of New York and Penn- 
sylvania deserve special notice? Give a careful discussion of the New 
York county, and explain carefully to what extent it affected the organiza- 
tion of the county in the West. Give a careful discussion of the Penn- 
sylvania county and explain carefully to what extent it affected the organi- 
zation of the county in the West. Compare the New York, the Pennsyl- 
vania, and the Virginia county of colonial times with regard to powers and 
duties in local government. 

State briefly, but clearly, what the result has been in the contest of 
the county, township, and parish for power in local government. What 
will very likely be the future of the county as to power in local affairs? 
Explain carefully the influence and the value of the principle of township 
government in the smaller local affairs. Explain carefully why the people 
desire to have these smaller units of local government. Give a careful 
discussion as to what extent this desire is being carried out at the pres- 
ent time. What is the value of these smaller units of local government? 
What is the duty of every citizen toward them? 

What affairs of government are under the control of the state govern- 
ment? What affairs of government are under the control of the national 
government? How did each of these forms of government secure the 
powers which they have? Explain carefully how the people in matters 
of government in the United States are the source of all power. Of what 
three departments does national, state, and local government consist? 
Explain carefully the general powers and duties of each department. 
What is the object for dividing government into these three departments? 
Of what two houses or divisions does the legislative department of the 
state and national government consist? What is the object for this divi- 
sion? What is the legislative department of the county? How are the 
members of the legislative department of state and local government 
elected? Discuss the powers and duties of the legislative department of 
state government. 

What is the highest executive officer in the national government called? 
What is he called in the state governments? Who are the executive 
officers in the county government? What are some of the other state 
executive officers called? How are the state executive officers selected? 
Explain carefully the general powers and duties of the state executive 
officers. Of what do the judicial departments of the state and national 
governments consist? How are the state and local judges elected? Ex- 



Questions and Topics 127 

plain carefully the powers and duties of these different courts and how 
cases may be appealed from one to the other. 

In what respects are local, state, and national government alike? Ex- 
plain carefully the real difference between these three forms of divisions 
of government. (Before taking up the next topic the teacher and pupils 
should make a general but careful study of the government of the state 
in which they live.) 

Into how many departments was the government of the various colonies 
divided? What was the lower house of the legislature called in the dif- 
ferent colonies? How were the members of the lower house elected? 
Explain carefully what qualifications were required of those who voted 
for members of the lower house. What was the upper house of the legis- 
lature called? How were its members selected in the various colonies? 
Give a careful discussion of the powers and duties of the lower house in 
the various colonies. Give a careful discussion of the powers and duties 
of the upper house of the legislature in the various colonies. Compare 
these powers and duties with the powers and duties which belong to 
the upper branch of the state legislature at the present time. Of what 
did the executive department of the government in the various colonies 
consist? Explain carefully how the governor in each colony was se- 
lected. Explain how the manner of selecting the governors gave rise to 
three so-called forms of government in the colonies. Explain in what 
respects these three forms of government differed. Explain carefully 
how the people really controlled the law-making body in each colony. 
What were the powers and duties of the governors in each colony? Of 
what did the judicial department in each colony consist? What were the 
different courts in each colony called? How were the judges of these 
courts selected? What were the powers and duties of these different 
courts ? 

Of what did the national government in the colonies consist? Explain 
carefully to what extent the colonists were willing to acknowledge the 
authority of Parliament. In what respect did Parliament and the legis- 
latures of the colonies bear the same relation to the king? Why was this 
principle very important to the colonists, and why did they insist on 
carrying it out? 

Compare carefully the lower branch of the colonial legislatures with the 
lower branch of the state legislatures. Compare carefully the upper branch 
of the colonial legislatures with the upper branch of the state legislatures. 
Compare carefully the executive departments of the colonial legislatures 
with the executive department of the state legislatures. Compare care- 
fully the judicial departments of the colonial legislatures with the judicial 
departments of the state legislatures. To what extent does all this in- 
dicate that state government is simply the modification and expansion of 
colonial government? In what respects has government changed most 
since colonial times? 



128 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the relation between local government in the colonies and 
local government at the present time. Show in what way the state 
legislative department to-day is simply an outgrowth and modification 
of tiie legislative department of the colonics. In what ways do the state 
("\eculive departments to-day resemble the executive departments in the 
colonies? Explain the relation l)eLwccn the judicial department of to-day 
and the judicial department of the colonies. What change has there been 
since colonial times as to the number of officers elected directly by the 
people? What change has there been as to the qualifications of voters? 

RELIGION 
Questions for Class Recitations 
Explain carefully to Mdiat extent a person at the present time may do 
as he pleases in regard to religious matters. What is meant by religious 
liberty? Give a full description of the religious persecutions which have 
taken place in Europe. Compare the condition of religious liberty in the 
L^nited States to-day with its condition in Europe about the time the 
colonies were settled. Did the Puritans come to America for the purpose 
of establishing religious liberty? Tell all you can about the persecution 
of people in New England on account of their religious ideas. Describe 
the religious persecutions in the other colonies. Describe the laws made 
in the various colonies against certain churches. Describe the religious 
conditions in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania. To what conditions are 
religious persecutions due? What is the relation between political and 
religious liberty? How are general education and political liberty related? 
Explain how the establishment of public schools aided the growth of 
religious liberty in the United States. Explain carefully the importance 
of the free public school system to the welfare of the nation. What is 
meant by the separation of church and state? How did the separation 
of church and slate afYect the growth of religious liberty in the colonies? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the condition of religious liberty in Europe about the time the 
colonies were settled. Discuss the condition of religious liberty in the 
colonies. Discuss the growth of religious liberty in the United States. 
Discuss the causes of religious persecution. 

EDUCATION. 

Questions for Class Recit.\tiuns 

(In Cdnncctinn witli the (piestions on Education, each inii)il sliould 
read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," 



Questions and Topics 129 

pp. 201-233. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Compare 
carefully the schools of the colonies with those of to-day in regard to 
numhcr, kind, and nature of work. Explain carefully the condition of 
schools and general education in England at the time the colonies were 
settled. Describe the school system that existed in England at that time. 
Explain fully, how and to what extent the condition of education in Eng- 
land afifected the condition of education in the colonies. 

How did the character of the ministers influence educational condi- 
tions in the South? What was the effect of plantation life on the building 
up of schools ? What was the attitude of the royal governors toward gen- 
eral education, and what effect did this have on the establishment of 
schools? How were the sons of the rich planters educated? Describe 
the condition of education in the southern colonies. Tell what you can 
of the founding of the college of William and Mary. Give a full description 
of the influence of the Puritan ministers on education in New England. 
Explain carefully how the Puritan religion served to encourage education 
and the establishment of schools. Tell what you can of the first laws 
establishing public schools in America. Explain carefully why these laws 
were of great importance in the history of the world. Describe the public 
schools in each of the New England colonies. Describe the founding of 
colleges in New England. Tell what you can of the customs and studies 
in these colleges. Compare the schools of the middle colonies with those 
of New England and the-southern colonies. What support did the govern- 
ment give to the schools in the middle colonies? Describe the educational 
work of the churches. How did the general education of the people of 
the middle colonies compare with that of the people of New England? 
Describe the schools of Philadelphia, and explain fully the work of Franklin 
in advancing education. Compare the colleges of the middle colonies 
with those of New England. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the educational conditions in England, at the time of the 
founding of the colonies. Explain how the plan of education in England 
affected education in the colonies. Discuss the influence of the ministry 
upon education in the colonies. Discuss the origin of the public school 
system. Compare New England, the southern, and the middle colonies in 
respect to general education. Why was New England ahead of the other 
colonies in the matter of general education? Discuss the colleges of 
the colonies. Compare in a general way educational conditions in the 
colonies with educational conditions in the United States at the present 
time. 



ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 

I American Institutions: Changes in, and From 

Where Derived 
D. 233-234 

II Government in England 

1. Relation to Government in the United States 

D. 234-236 

2. Outline of Struggle betiveen King and People 

D. 236-237 

3. The Five Rights Demanded by the English People 

(a) The Right of Taxation 

D. 237-238 

(b) The Right of Habeas Corpus 

D. 238 

(c) The Right of Trial by Jury 

D. 238 

(d) The Right of Privacy in the Home 

D. 239 

(e) The Right of Refusing to Quarter Soldiers 

D. 239-240 

4. Hozi^ English men secured these Rights 

D. 240-243 

III Transfer of English Rights and Institutions to 

America 
D. 243-244 



ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 

I American Institutions: Changes in, and From Where 

Derived 

From the study of colonial institutions in the previous 
chapter, it is plain that our institutions today are a direct 
outgrowth of these institutions as they existed in the col- 
onies. There has been considerable change in industrial 
conditions, due to the great inventions and discoveries in 
science. Industrial progress has been brought about largely 
through a general intellectual advancement, and in turn it 
has made further advancement possible along the line of 
general education. It is but natural that these changes 
should have had a marked effect on the other institutions. 

As our institutions of today are a direct outgrowth of 
the colonial institutions, so the institutions of the colonies 
were borrowed directly from England. It is a mistaken idea 
that the colonists began everything anew when they crossed 
the Atlantic. Their ideas of government, religion, and the 
other institutions were brought directly from England, but 
modified to suit the conditions in the New World. These 
institutions had been developing in England for more than 
a thousand years. 

II Government in England 

I. Relation to Government in the United States 

A brief comparison of government in the United States 
with that in England shows that the two are closely re- 
lated. The form of England's government is today prac- 
tically what it was when the colonists came to America. 
In England government is divided into Executive, Legis- 
lative, and Judicial branches, as it is in America. The 
king corresponds to the president; the legislative branch 
in each country consists of an upper and a lower house; 



132 ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 

in many respects the judiciary of the United States is 
similar to that in England, and moreover the great body 
of English laws has been embodied in our legal system 
with but few fundamental changes. In local government 
there are many points of similarity. The county and town- 
ship existed in England centuries before America was 
discovered. 

2. Outline of Struggle Bctzvccu King and People 

While the English king today is the executive head of 
the nation, he is such only in theory. The long struggle 
between the king and parliament that lasted from the Nor- 
man Conquest, 1066, to the end of the American Revolu- 
tion, 1783, finally resulted hi the complete triumph of 
the English parliament over the king. The early part of 
the struggle resulted in the acquisition of Magna Charta, 
121 5, and the beginning of the House of Commons, 
1265, and the latter part was characterized by the great 
Puritan Revolution, 1641-1649, and the fall of arbitrary 
rule under George III. 

3. The Five Rights Demanded by the English People 

The long struggle outlined above covered a period of 
seven centuries. The Rights that were gradually acquired 
by the English people were 

(a) The Right of Taxation 

This means the right of the people to vote taxes 
through their representatives. It was a protest against 
the practices of the kings who frequently levied taxes 
in an arbitrary manner, and not always for the public 
good. 

(b) The Right of Habeas Corpus 

This means the right of a person in prison to demand 
that cause be shown for his imprisonment. This right 
gave relief against arbitrary imprisonment by the king. 



ice 



Govcrnuicnt in England 133 

(c) The Right of Trial by Jury 

This right gives the accused the right to a verdict 
by twelve fellow citizens, and gives protection against 
arbitrary punishment. 

(d) The Right of Privacy in the Home 

In times past, in England and even in the colonies, 
general warrants were issued by courts that permitted 
an officer to search any house he pleased for any articles 
svispected of being smuggled or stolen, as the case 
might be. At the present time, a search warrant must 
designate the house to be searched and must specify 
the articles searched for. 

(e) The Right of Refusing to Quarter Soldiers 
This right grew out of the protest against the pract.^v. 

of quartering soldiers on private citizens during times 
of peace. 

4. Hozv Englishmen Secured T/iese Rights 

These five rights were not acquired at the same time; 
nor was any one of these principles firmly and finally estab- 
lished without first having been partially gained and lost 
many times, according as parliament or the king was the 
stronger. In 121 5 King John had become so oppressive 
that the barons took up arms against him and forced him 
to sign the Great Charter of English Liberties, or Magna 
Charta, as it is called. In later years the privileges gained 
in Magna Charta were allowed to lapse and on several 
occasions later kings were forced to re-affirm this charter. 
In 1265 the House of Commons was first convened and 
by 1400 it had become a well established branch of parlia- 
ment. In spite of the growth of the power of parliament, 
kings in numerous cases were able to rule without its 
assistance. By 1600 parliament had become quite power- 
ful. During the next half century it was to measure 
its strength with that of the despotic Stuarts. In 1628 
Charles I. attempted to raise revenues without the consent 



134 ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 

of parliament, and was forced to sign the Petition of 
Rights. When later he violated his promises, the 
people arose in revolt, 1641-1649, and Charles I. was 
beheaded. This made parliament more powerful than 
ever, but it was not until the end of the American Revo- 
lution that it became finally supreme. 

Ill Transfer of English Rights and Institutions to 
America 

When the English colonists came to America, they came 
as Englishmen, and even after several generations they still 
considered themselves Englishmen. It was but natural then 
that they looked upon the institutions and rights of their 
English forefathers as their heritage. However, in traub- 
planting these institutions to the New World, they made 
some important changes that put the colonies on a more 
democratic basis than the mother country. This was but 
the natural result of colonizing in a wilderness far removed 
from the controlling influences and associations of the mother 
country. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain to what extent the five institutions as they exist in the United 
States to-day are related to the form and condition of those institutions 
as they existed in the colonies. What has caused the change in these 
institutions since colonial times? From where did the particular forms 
or kinds of these institutions as they existed in the colonies come? For 
about how long were they being developed before they were brought to 
America ? 

Explain quite fully the relation of government in England to govern- 
ment in the United States. Give a brief statement of the long struggle 
between the English king and the English people over the question of 
English rights. Explain fully what is meant by the Right of Taxation. 
Why are the people so anxious to have this right? Explain fully what 
is meant by the Right of Habeas Corpus. Why is this right so valuable? 
Explain fully what is meant by the Right of Trial by Jury. Why is this 
a very valuable right? Explain fully what is meant by the Right of Privacy 
in the Home. Why are the people anxious to have this right? Explain 
fully what is meant by the Right of refusing to Quarter Soldiers. Why 
is this a valuable right? 

What is the Magna Charta? How did the English people secure it? 
What did the English people do when a king disobeyed this charter, and 
tried to take away their rights? What is the English Parliament? What 
part of the national government of the United States corresponds to Parlia- 
ment? When did Parliament first become fairly well established? How 
did most of the English kings treat Parliament? Discuss the struggle 
between Parliament and James I. How did America assist in helping 
firmly to establish the authority of Parliament? How were English rights 
and institutions transferred to America? What was the feeling of the 
colonists toward England and English rights and institutions? What 
caused the five institutions, and especially the institution of government, 
to become somewhat changed in the colonies? What was the nature of 
this change in the institution of government? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the relation of government in England to government in the 
United States. Discuss the five more important English rights, explaining 
the nature and value of each. Discuss the struggle between the English 
people and their kings over these five important rights. Discuss the 
transfer of English rights and institutions to America. 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

(In connection wUli this chapter, each pupil should read the 
second number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 153-309.) 

A CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS 

I Causes of the Revolution 

1. English Control of Colonial Commerce 

D. 248-253; Mc. 108; Ma. 136-137, 139-140; G. 
130-133; T. 107-109; M. 152-153 

2. Taxation H'ithout Kc (presentation 

D. 253-260; Mc. 110-112, 115-116; Ma. 140-146; 
G. 133-141; T. 109-110; M. 153-154 

(a) The Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Congress, 

1765 

D. 253-255; H. II. 153-162; Mc. 1 12-1 15; 

Ma. 140-145; G. 133-138; T. 110-114; 
M. 154-155 

(b) The Declaratory Act, 1766: The Townshend 

Acts, 1767 

D. 255-260; H. II. 162-166; Mc. 1 17-120; 

Ma. 145-146; G. 138; T. 1 14-123; M. 

i55-^S8 

3. TJie Repressiz'e or Intolerable Acts, 1774 

D. 260-262; Mc. 120; Ma. 151-152; G. 144-145; 
T. 123-126; M. 158 

II The Beginnings of the Revolution 

I. Grozi'ih of Colonial Union 

(a) Committees of Correspondence, 1772 

D. 262-266, Mc. 121 ; Ma. 142-143, 146. 149- 
150; G. 142; T. 120-121 ; M. 159 



Campaigns 137 

(b) The First Continental Congress, 1774 

D. 266-267; H. II. 168-169, 104; Mc. 
121-122; Ma. 152-155; G. 145-146; T. 
125-127; M. 159-160 

2. Concord and Lexington, 177s 

D. 267-273; H. II. 257-260; Ma. 155-158; G. 
147-149; T. 128-129; M. 160-162 

3. Siege and Capture of Boston, 1775-1776 

D. 273-278; H. II. 208-209, 261-266; ]\Ic. 
129-131 ; Ma. 151-162; G. 149-153 ;T. 131- 
134; M. 162-166 

4. Declaration of Independence, 1776 

D. 278-284; H. II. 172-175; Mc. 131-135; 
Appendix 1-4; Ma. 162-165; G. 153-157; 
T. 134-139; M. 167-168 

5. Comparison of Resources of England and America 

D. 284-287; T. 132 

B CAMPAIGNS 

I The Campaign to Separate New England from the 
Other States, and the Campaign Against Phil- 
adelphia AND THE Middle States 
D. 287-309; H. II. 191-192; Mc. 135-143, 146-149; 
Ma. 165-184; G. 158-175; T. 139-160; M. 169-182 

n Campaign Against the Southern States 

D. 309-317; H. 11. 307-309; Mc. 143-146; Ma. 186- 
195; G. 181-191; T. 160-165; M. 181-188 

C RESULTS OF THE WAR 

D. 317-320; Mc. 149-152; Ma. 195-198; G. 191-192; T. 
165-166; :\rr. 188-189 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

At the close of the French and Indian War in 1763, the English 
colonists in America were loyal English subjects. They were 
proud of their English origin ; proud of English history, consider- 
ing it part of their own inheritance. England had no more loyal 
subjects than the Americans. They had confidence in her govern- 
ment, and with reverence called her the Mother Country. 
Although there had been continual disagreements between the col- 
onists and the officers in America appointed by the king, all these 
disputes had been local, and had not materially affected the loy- 
alty of the colonists to England. In less than fifteen years from 
this time, these same colonists were in open rebellion, carrying on 
war against England. There were vital and far reaching causes 
which brought about this change of feeling, and these were the 
causes which led to the Revolution. 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS 

I Causes of the Revolution 

I. English Control of Colonial Commerce 

Up to the time of the American Revolution the pre- 
vailing idea regarding colonies was that they were planted 
and existed for the benefit of the home country, especially 
in respect to trade. In order to control the commerce of 
her colonies, England passed trade laws known as the 
Navigation Acts, and these were fundamentally connected 
with the causes of the Revolution. These laws extended 
from 1 65 1 down to the Revolution. Their object was to 
secure to English merchants a monopoly of the carry- 
ing trade of England and her colonies. In some cases 
small duties were levied on exports and imports, but these 
duties were levied mainly in order to secure the better en- 
forcement of the Navigation Acts, and not in order to raise 



Causes and Beginnings 139 

money for the English government. The laws regulating 
colonial commerce were not rigidly enforced in America 
until after the French and Indian War. Although the 
colonists were irritated by these laws, they did not offer 
any serious objection to them until Writs of Assistance 
were issued, enabling English officers to enter private 
houses and search for smuggled goods. These writs of 
assistance were search warrants and were so general in 
nature that they could be tyrannically used for personal 
and malicious ends, and their issuance caused bitter feeling. 

2. Taxation Without Representation 

There was no central government in America which 
had the power to provide for the defense of all the col- 
onies by raising soldiers and by levying taxes. It was very 
plain that this country would need to be protected and 
the British government decided to place an army in the 
colonies for their defense to be partly supported by the 
colonists by means of a tax. Parliament levied this tax 
itself on specific articles instead of allowing the colonists 
to tax themselves to raise the necessary amount. The 
colonists had no representative in Parliament. They 
would probably have submitted to the Navigation Acts and 
to the nominal taxes which some of them imposed. They 
would not, however, pay taxes levied for the purpose of 
revenue, and especially direct taxes, unless they had some 
voice in voting such taxation. They did not object to 
the amount of the tax, but to the principle involved. Eng- 
lishmen, by more than a century of struggle, had secured 
the right to vote taxes through their representatives. The 
colonists considered themselves Englishmen with all the 
rights of Englishmen, and hence they refused to submit 
to taxation without representation. In other words, the 
Revolution was brought about because Englishmen in 
America were denied the rights enjoyed by Englishmen 
in England. It should be remembered that these rights 



140 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

were denied the colonists in America, not by the ])eople 
of England, but by the King- and his ministers. The com- 
mon people and the best statesmen of England, like the 
colonists, were opposed to the levying of taxes where the 
people taxed had no voice in the voting of them. William 
Pitt was one of the English statesmen who saw that the 
Americans were contending for a principle, and when 
he became Prime Minister, he opposed the levying of 
direct taxes on the colonists. He was glad that the col- 
onists resisted the unjust taxation because he believed that 
if the King could unjustly tax the colonies, he might at- 
tempt to overthrow the constitutional liberties of England. 

(a) The Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Congress, 1765 

The Stamp Act passed in 1765 was the first attempt 
of the English Parliament to levy internal taxes on the 
colonies, and the colonists strongly resented it as an 
infringement of their rights. This tax was put in the 
form of stamps to be placed on legal documents and 
printed papers and pamphlets. Parliament considering 
this the easiest way of raising a tax, and the least likely 
to cause trouble. Virginia led the opposition of the 
colonies by passing a set of resolutions against taxation 
without representation. The colonies sent to the King 
and Parliament many petitions against the Stamp Act. 
This feeling of opposition led to the calling of a con- 
gress composed of delegates from the different colonies 
for the purpose of drawing wyi a united remonstrance 
against the act. Nine of the colonies sent delegates, 
and this congress drew up and signed a " Declaration 
of Rights and Grievances." This was the first time 
that the colonies acted in unity. 

(b) The Declaratory Act, 1766; The Townshend Acts, 

1767 
When Parliament was forced, partly by the opposi- 
tion of leading English statesmen and partly by the 



Causes mid Beginnings 141 

protests of English merchants who suffered from the 
conditions in America, to repeal the Stamp Act, it passed 
at the same time what is called the Declaratory Act, 
which asserted the right of Parliament to legislate for 
the colonies on all questions. In the following year a 
series of acts known as the Townshend Acts were passed 
which asserted the right of Parliament to tax the col- 
onists, and levied import duties on certain articles of 
common use. The opposition of the colonists to these 
acts was so violent that all except one were repealed. 
The tax on tea was retained merely to assert the author- 
ity of Parliament in regard to taxation. It was just this 
principle that the colonists were standing for, and they 
refused to pay even this tax. The tea sent over was, 
in most cases, not allowed to be landed, and in some 
cases it was destroyed. At Boston a body of men 
boarded a tea ship in the harbor and threw the tea into 
the ocean. This is known as the Boston Tea Party. 

3. TJw Repressive or Intolerable Aets, 1774 

The action of the colonists regarding the tea tax angered 
the King and Parliament, and a series of acts were passed 
for the purpose of punishing Massachusetts. The first 
of these acts, known as the Boston Port Bill, provided 
for the closing of the port of Boston, and the third act, 
which annulled the charter of Massachusetts and provided 
for a military governor with arbitrary power, were 
especially tyrannical. These acts served to rouse the 
people of all the colonies to the danger their liberties were 
in, and to prepare their minds for rebellion. 

II The Beginnings of the Revolution 

I. GroK'th of Colonial Union 

(a) Committees of Correspondence, 1772 

The royal governors were alarmed and angered at 
the stand taken by the colonists with regard to the tea 



142 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

tax, and in 1772 the governor of Massachusetts dissolved 
its legislature in order to prevent united action by the 
colony. Through the efforts of Samuel Adams, com- 
mittees were at once appointed by the various towns in 
order that there might be united action, and to look after 
the interests of the colony. Soon events led Virginia to 
appoint a permanent Committee of Correspondence to 
communicate with the other colonies regarding their gen- 
eral welfare, and plans of action. Within a year similar 
Committees of Correspondence had been appointed in all 
of the colonies. The work of these committees was very 
important as it prepared the Americans for united action 
in the struggle which was to follow. 

(b) The First Continental Congress, 1774 

The passing of the Repressive Acts led directly to 
the calling of a congress of delegates by the colonies. 
This congress was a direct outgrowth of the Correspond- 
ence Committees, and it marked an advance step. It 
contained delegates from all the colonies except Georgia, 
and thus represented the feeling of the colonies as a 
whole. It met with the definite purpose of obtaining 
a redress of grievances and had as members most of 
the ablest men in America. In addition to drawing 
up a Declaratfon of Rights, and issuing addresses to 
Englishmen, to Americans, and to the King, asking for 
the protection of these rights, this congress decided upon 
a definite plan of action by all the colonies, and made 
provision for effectively carrying out these plans. 

2. Concord and Lexington, lyjs 

When the petitions of the Continental Congress were 
ignored by the King and by Parliament, and Gage was 
sent over as military governor of Massachusetts, the col- 
onists began active preparations for war. Arms and pro- 
visions were collected and volunteer soldiers were enrolled 



Causes and Beginnings 143 

and drilled in the various colonies. Patriotic societies were 
formed among both men and women for the purpose 
of resisting the attacks on English rights in America. 

An attempt by Gage to seize supplies stored by the 
colonists at Concord resulted in the first bloodshed of the 
war. While the number lost was small on both sides, these 
two engagements inflamed the colonists as no merely politi- 
cal act could have done. 

3. Siege and Capture of Boston, 1775-1776 

After the battles of Concord and Lexington the British 
under Gage were shut up in Boston by colonial soldiers. 
The Continental Congress assumed control of the troops 
besieging Boston, made Washington commander-in-chief, 
and took measures to obtain more men for the continental 
army, as it was now called. The battle of Bunker Hill 
was the most important engagement of this siege. While 
the British were victorious their victory was dearly bought. 
In substance it was a victory for the Americans as it gave 
them confidence in their ability to resist English arms. 
After a siege of nearly a year, the British were compelled 
to evacuate Boston. During this time the fortress of 
Ticonderoga and the small fort of Crown Point had been 
taken by colonial soldiers, and an unsuccessful expedition 
had been sent into Canada. 

4. Declaration of Independence, 1776 

The action of the king in rejecting all petitions, in 
declaring the colonists rebels, and in hiring foreign troops 
to put down the rebellion, led the colonists to decide upon 
complete independence of Great Britain. The formation 
of state governments, and the publication of numerous 
patriotic writings aided the colonists in reaching this 
conclusion. A resolution affirming the independence of 
the colonies was passed by the Continental Congress on 
July 2nd, 1776, and two days later the Declaration of 
Independence was adopted. 



144 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

5. Compairison of Resources of England and America 

England had great advantages over the colonists in re- 
spect to wealth and population, but these were offset to 
some extent by the distance of the colonies from England, 
and by the hostility of other European nations to Great 
Britain. Both England and America suffered from lack of 
unity in the support of the war, but England suffered the 
more, for while there were many in America wiio sympa- 
thized with the English and even aided them, in England 
the leading statesmen strongly opposed the war from the 
beginning to the end. The colonies' greatest weakness lay 
in their lack of a strong central government with power 
to raise money and soldiers and to conduct the war with 
vigor. While England could obtain almost any amount 
of military supplies and troops, the Americans had great 
difficulty in these respects. On the other hand, the Ameri- 
cans had an advantage in the superiority of their com- 
manders, and in the patriotic spirit of their army. 

CAMPAIGNS 

After the English under Gage sailed away from Boston on 
March 17, 1776, they made no further attempt during the war to 
invade and subdue New England. Neither did they make any 
serious attempt during the war to invade and subdue Virginia. 
Virginia and New England each contained about 700,000 people, 
which made their combined population about equal to that of all 
the other states. The people of Virginia and New England were 
united and aggressive in their opposition to England. Lexington, 
Concord and the siege of Boston had taught the British that an 
invasion of New England meant the stout and active resistance 
of almost every man. They knew that the people of Virginia 
were just as united and determined as those of New England, 
and that an invasion of that state, the home of Washington, 
would meet with the same strong resistance. The British 
decided, therefore, to leave New England and Virginia, with 



Cainpaip,>!s 145 

their large and hostile populations, alone, and to try to subdue the 
other states which contained fewer people and in which they 
hoped to find many people friendly to them. They thought that 
if they could get control of most of the other states, Virginia 
and New England would be compelled to submit. After the 
capture of Boston by Washington, the king and his ministers 
and generals, therefore, planned three general campaigns — two 
against the middle states and one against the far southern states. 
One was to capture New York City, and to secure control of the 
Hudson river and of as much of the state of New York as pos- 
sible. The success of this campaign would have been of great 
value to the British, because it would have given them control 
of a direct line of communication between New York City and 
Canada, and as the English had control of the sea, this would 
have completely separated New England from all the other states. 
The object of the other campaign against the middle states was to 
capture Philadelphia, the largest city in x^merica, and to secure 
control of as much of Pennsylvania and New Jersey as possible. 
By the southern campaign the British hoped to capture the 
cities of Charleston and Savannah, and to secure control of 
Georgia, South Carolina and North Carolina. 

T The Campaign to Separate New England from the 
Other States, and the Campaign Against Phila- 
delphia and the Middle States 

These two campaigns were carried on at the same time. 
They extended over two years and ended in failure. They 
began in July, 1776, when a British army of 25,000 men under 
General Howe and a large British fleet under his brother. 
Admiral Howe, arrived at Staten Island from Halifax. They 
ended in June, 1778, when the British evacuated Philadel- 
phia and concentrated all their northern forces in New York 
city. New York city was captured by the British in August, 
1776, and was used as the basis of operations for both these 
campaigns, and also for the southern campaign. It was the 
last city evacuated by the British at the end of the war. As 



146 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

a result of three months' fighting, Howe had captured New 
York city and had slowly driven Washington a short dis- 
tance up the Hudson, but the American army was about as 
large and as well prepared for battle as when the fighting 
began, although it was much smaller than the British army 
under Howe. In a short time, however, the meddling of 
Congress and the treachery of Lee compelled Washington 
with but a small part of his force to make a hurried retreat 
across New Jersey into Pennsylvania. Then in this darkest 
hour of the war came the capture of Trenton and his bril- 
liant work which compelled the British to withdraw from 
nearly all New Jersey. As a result of four months' fighting 
the British held New York city and a few outlying posts. 
The attempt of General Carleton to march down the Hudson 
from Canada, join Howe at New York city and thus separate 
New England from the middle states, was a complete failure. 
In the spring of 1777 the British renewed their cam- 
paigns for the capture of Philadelphia and for the separation 
of New England from the other states. Burgoyne with an 
army of 8,000 men was to capture the Fortress of Ticon- 
deroga and march down the Hudson. St. Leger with a force 
of about 2,000 men was to capture Oswego on the east shore 
of Lake Ontario and march across New York to the Hudson 
and join Burgoyne. Howe with some 18,000 men was to 
move up the Hudson and meet Burgoyne. Before doing this 
he decided to capture Philadelphia. This proved to be a mis- 
take. He succeeded in capturing Philadelphia, but the ex- 
cellent generalship of Washington compelled him to consume 
about four months in doing this and it was then too late 
to assist Burgoyne. On October \y — a few days after Howe 
entered Philadelphia — Burgoyne was forced to surrender 
at Saratoga on the upper Hudson. The capture of Phila- 
delphia was of but little value to the British, for they were 
able to hold only as much territory as was actually occupied 
by their troops, while the surrender of Burgoyne was a great 
injury. As a result of this surrender, France soon made an 
alliance with America. This compelled the British to 



Campaigns 147 

evacuate Philadelphia in the spring of 1778. On its march 
from Philadelphia to New York City the British army was 
attacked by Washington at Alonmouth, and had it not been 
for the treachery of Lee, this battle would have resulted in 
a serious disaster to the English. The British now concen- 
trated all their northern forces in New York city. Thus the 
two northern campaigns of the British ended in failure. 
In the fall of 1778 the British began their southern campaign, 
which was the third and last one and which was also to end 
in failure. 

After the battle of Monmouth the British made no further 
real attempt to carry on the war in the North, but con- 
fined their operations to sending out marauding expeditions 
and to stirring up the Indians on the frontiers. The more 
important events in the North during the remainder of the 
war were the storming of Stony Point by the Americans, 
the treason of Arnold, and the total defeat of the Indians by 
Clark and Sullivan. The brilliant work of Paul Jones and 
of the American privateers is also worthy of special notice 
during this latter period of the war. 

II Campaign Against the Southern Colonies 

From an English standpoint this campaign was, for a time, 
successful. Savannah was captured, and Georgia and part 
of South Carolina were overrun. Several American armies 
were utterly destroyed. But when the inefficient Gates was 
superseded by Greene, the tide turned in favor of the Ameri- 
cans. At King's Mountain and at the Cowpens small Brit- 
ish forces were entirely destroyed. The indecisive battle of 
Guilford Courthouse so weakened the British army that 
Cornwallis, with Greene in pursuit, retreated to Wilmington, 
North Carolina. With the exception of Charleston and 
Savannah, Greene soon forced the British to evacuate all of 
South Carolina and Georgia. ^Meanwhile Cornwallis marched 
north and fortified Yorktown. Here he was attacked by the 
combined French and American forces and compelled to 
surrender, October 19, 1781. Cornwallis's surrender prac- 
ticallv ended the war. 



148 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Ri':suLTS OF THE War 

As the news of the surrender at Yorktown spread through the 
states, the people gave themselves over to general rejoicing. 
There were bonfires in almost every village, for the people knew 
that the surrender of Cornwallis, following, as it did, Greene's 
great campaign in the south, ended the war. \Mien the news 
reached Paris, flags were flung to the breeze, nearly all the houses 
were illuminated, and the French, like the Americans, gave them- 
selves up to general rejoicing. When Lord North heard the 
news he walked the floor of his room in great excitement exclaim- 
ing, " Aly God, it is all over, it is all over, it is all over ! " When 
Charles Fox, one of the leaders of the House of Commons, heard 
it, he sprang from his chair with a shout of joy. Many of the 
leading statesmen of England were equally as glad as Fox that 
Cornwallis had been captured. Lord North, who had been prime 
minister since 1770, was soon forced by the Llouse of Commons 
to resign and the king was forced to appoint in his place the 
leader of the Whig party that had always been friendly to the 
Americans and opposed to the war. The fall of Lord North 
marked the end of the king's personal rule in England. Never 
since then has a king of England attempted to rule. The people, 
through the House of Commons, have controlled the government 
and made the laws and the king has simply reigned. The sur- 
render at Yorktown, therefore, was a glorious victory for English- 
men as well as for Americans. The Americans had fought to 
uphold the liberties of Englishmen, just as their ancestors in 
England had often done in the years gone by. On September 
3rd. 1783, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris, which ended the 
war between England on one side and France, Spain and the 
United States on the other. The new nation secured the terri- 
tory extending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and from the 
Great Lakes to Florida ; England secured the right to navigate 
the Mississippi, and the Americans obtained the right to fish on 
the Newfoundland Banks ; the republican spirit received a 
remarka1)le siimulus tbrouc:hout the world. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 
Questions for Class Recitaticns 

(In connection with the questions on the American Revolution, each 
pupil should read the second number of Hart's "Source Readers in 
American History," pp. 153-309. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," 
page ix.) What was King George's attitude toward popular government? 
Explain fully why he desired to secure control of Parliament. How did 
he succeed in doing this? Explain quite fully why Parliament wished 
to tax the colonists. Was it the duty of the colonies to help pay the 
cost of the French and Indian War, and to help support the British 
soldiers in America? Why did the colonists object to paying the taxes 
levied by Parliament? Why was King George anxious to take up this 
quarrel with the Americans? Discuss the Navigation Acts, explaining 
quite fully why they were passed. Why did the colonists not seriously 
object to these laws? Why were general search warrants, called Writs 
of Assistance, issued in connection with these laws? Explain why the 
Americans objected to these Writs. What efifect did the issuing of these 
Writs have on the peopiej Explain how the Stamp Act violated the right 
of taxation. How was this Act regarded by the Americans? Describe 
the action of Virginia against this Act. What action was taken by the 
other colonies ? Discuss the Stamp Act Congress, mentioning its origin, 
composition, and work. Describe how the people treated the stamp dis- 
tributors and the stamped paper. Why did the Stamp Act never go into 
efifect? Why did the English merchants have it repealed? What was the 
Declaratory Act and why was it passed? Describe the Townshend Acts. 
How were they received by the Americans? Why were all the taxes 
levied by them repealed except the tax on tea? Why was the tax on tea 
retained? Explain quite fully how the tea imported under this tax was 
received by the Americans. Discuss the work of Samuel Adams ii^ relation 
to the "Boston Tea Party." Discuss the "Boston Massacre." What led 
to the passage of the Repressive or Intolerable Acts ? Describe each of 
these acts. What efifect did they have on the Americans ? 

Explain carefully and fully how the Stamp Act, The Townshend Acts, 
and the attempt of the English government to send Americans to England 
for trial led to union of action on the part of the colonies. Explain care- 
fully what led to the appointment of the first permanent Committee of 
Correspondence. Explain fully what led to the calling of the First Con- 
tmental Congress. Discuss carefully the work of this Congress. What 
led the xA.mericans to make active preparations for war? Describe these 



150 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

preparations. Describe the work of Samuel Adams in connection with 
these preparations. Who were the minute men? Describe the battles of 
Lexington and Concord. What was the effect of these battles on the 
Americans? (Each pupil should draw a map showing the direction of 
Lexington and Concord from Boston, and the British line of march.) 
Discuss the work of the Second Continental Congress. Describe the battle 
of Bunker Hill. Describe the siege and capture of Boston by Washington. 
(Each pupil should draw a map of the neighborhood of Boston, showing 
the position of the English and the American troops during the siege of 
Boston and in the battle of Bunker Hill.) Describe the capture of Forts 
Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 

Discuss the petition sent to the king by the Second Continental 
Congress in July, 1775, and also the resolutions passed by that Congress 
at the time. What do this petition and these resolutions show as to the 
feeling of the Americans toward England? What were Washington's 
attitude and feeling on the question of independence when he first took 
command of the army? Name the conditions and events that caused 
the American people within the next year to declare their independence 
of Great Britain. Why did King George hire foreign soldiers to fight in 
America? How was this regarded in Europe and in America? Tell 
what you can of the patriotic writings of Thomas Paine and their efifect 
on the people. When and why were state governments formed? How 
did the formation of these governments aid in the growth of the desire 
for independence? Describe the passage of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. What was the nature of the Declaration? How was it received 
by the Americans? How was the opinion in England divided regarding 
this war? What was the attitude of the other nations of Europe toward 
England? Were the Americans united in favor of the war? How did the 
United States com.pare with England in wealth? What was the source 
of its greatest weakness? In what respects had the United States the 
advantage of England in this war? 

CAMPAIGNS 

In what way did the battles of Lexington and Concord and the siege 
of Boston influence the British plans of campaigns? Describe carefully 
the three general campaigns adopted by the British after the siege of 
Boston. Explain carefully the object of each. 

Describe the capture of New York by the British. (Each pupil should 
draw a map illustrating the battles around New York City.) Explain 
how the disobedience of Lee after the surrender of Fort Washington 
injured the American cause. In what way was Lee captured by the 
English? Describe the retreat of Washington through New Jersey. 
Describe the capture of Trentort by Washington. Explain how Washington 



Questions and Topics 151 

soon after the capture of Trenton succeeded in compelling the British 
to give up nearly all of New Jersey. (Each pupil should draw a map 
illustrating the work of Washington from the time he began his retreat 
across New Jersey until he went into winter quarters at Morristown.) 
Describe the invasion of Canada by Montgomery and Arnold. 

What two campaigns did the British renew in the spring of 1777? 
Describe the campaign which resulted in the capture of Philadelphia by 
the British. (Each pupil should draw a map fully illustrating the cam- 
paign which resulted in the capture of Philadelphia, and also the battles 
which followed immediately after its capture.) In what way did Wash- 
ington's work in this campaign assist in the capture of Burgoyne and 
his army? Describe fully the conditions and battles which led to the 
surrender of Burgoyne. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating 
the campaign which resulted in the surrender of Burgoyne.) What effect 
did Burgoyne's surrender have on the English government? What effect 
did it have on the Americans? How did it assist in bringing about an 
alliance between France and America? How did the results of this 
alliance in Europe assist the Americans? How did this alliance affect 
the policy of the English government toward America? Why would not 
the Americans accept the liberal terms offered by the English govern- 
ment. Describe the condition of the American Army at Valley Forge. 
Why did the British leave Philadelphia in June, 1778? Describe the 
battle of Monmouth. Describe the storming of Stony Point. Discuss 
the treason of Arnold. After the battle of Monmouth why did the English 
army give up all the country in the middle and New England states 
except the city of New York and the country close around that city? 
What did the British hope to gain by stirring up the Indians on the 
frontiers of Pennsylvania and Nev/ York? Describe how Clark and 
Sullivan completely defeated the Indians. Describe the work of the 
American navy and privateers. 

Describe the attempt of the English to capture Charleston in 1776. 
Why did the British not renew the c.impaign against the South until 
after 1778, when their two northern campaigns had practically failed? 
Describe the southern campaign from the capture of Savannah in the 
latter part of 1778 to the capture of Charleston in 1780. Describe the 
work of the Americans under such southern leaders as Marion, Sumter, 
Pickens, and Williams. Describe the campaign of Gates that resulted 
in his defeat at Camden. Give a full discussion of Greene's southern 
campaign. What was the importance of this campaign? (Each pupil 
should draw a map- illustrating these southern campaigns.) 

Give a full description of the campaign which led to the surrender of 
Cornwallis. How was the news of this surrender received in America, 
France, and England? What effect did it have on the war? When and 



152 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

where was the treaty of peace signed that ended the Revohition? What 
territory did this treaty give to the United States? Discuss some of the 
other provisions of this treaty that affected the United States. Why was 
the success of the Americans in this war a great victory for Enghshmen 
as well as for Americans? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the causes of the American Revolution. Discuss the first 
period of the Revolution. (This period ended with the evacuation of 
Boston by the English.) Discuss the principles for which the Americans 
were fighting during this first period. Discuss the campaigns against 
the middle states. Discuss the campaign w-hich had for its object the 
separation of New England from the middle states. Discuss the cam- 
paign against the southern states. Discuss the campaign which led to 
the surrender of Cornwallis. Discuss the effect of the Revolution on 
political liberty in America and in Europe. 

Subjects for Special Study and General Review. 

(A careful study of the subjects which follow should constitute the 
review for the seventh-grade work in history and civics. The pupils 
should have ample time for the study of these subjects, and should be 
permitted free access to available material when preparing these papers for 
written discussions.) Give a written discussion of Conditions Favorable 
to the Discovery of America. Give a written discussion of Earlj' Discov- 
eries and Explorations in North America. Give a written disctission of The 
American Indian. Give a written discussion of the Origin, Growth, and 
Political Historj'^ of the Southern Colonies. Give a written discussion of 
the Origin, Growth, and Political History of th-e New England Colonies. 
Give a written discussion of the Origin, Growth, and Political History of 
the Middle Colonies. Give a written discussion of the French in North 
America down to and including the French and Indian War. Give a written 
discussion of Industrial Conditions in the Colonies. Give a written dis- 
cussion of Social Conditions in the Colonies. Give a written discussion 
of Religion in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of Education in the 
Colonies. Give a written discussion of the Origin of American Institutions. 
Give a written discussion of the American Rexolntion, iiK-luding its Causes 
and Results. 



EIGHTH YEAR WORK 



TH^i: CRITICAL PERIOD 

THE CRITICAL PI^RIOD 

I The Nature of the National Government 

D. 3J5-3J7: Mc. tjS-tjo. T55-150. 103: Ma. loS-ioo: 
(,r. 104; r. i^i-i^j, 154-155, 108-170; M. 150. 
10 J, iSo 

II TiiK XoKiiiwEST Territory; ThI': (^"tRnixANOK of 17S7 

P. 3-7-,UH); Mo. loo-ioj; Ma. jo^-joo; C 107-108; 
r. iS-'-iS^ ; M. 100-101 

III CoNiMru>NS OF Money and Business 

D. 3J9-331 : II. II. 2t8-jjo: Mc. 163-165. 198-200; 
Ma. 100; Ci. 105-100; r. 15.1-158; M. 173-174. 
i8t)-u)ii 

IV An.\K011V ANP Kl-.lU'l.l.lON 

1>. 331-33J; Mc. i(^; Ma. jixvjoj ; C. 100-107; T. 
170-171 ; M. 100 

V TiiK CoNsri ro rioN.vL Connkntion 

1. l-rt'itts /.(-(/(//'//i,' /() the Conii'iition 

P. 33_'-334 : Mc. 105; Ma. JOJ-J03. jo6; C 108, 
joo : T. 1 70- 1 7 1 

2. Org.viication of the Conzrittioii: Character of Mem- 

bers 
n. 334-330: M*.'. i''(^: .\Ia. J07 ; C. joo-joi ; T. 
T7_'-i73; M. \iu 

3. Makliii:; the Lonstitiitioii — The Three Creat Com- 

oro in ises 

'^- .vV'341^: M"-'. K17: M.i. jo7-_m 1 ; T. 173-174; 
M. ii)J, Note 3 



156 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

VI The Constitution 

1. Legislative Department "^ 

D. 341-3-42; Mc. 169, 197; T. T77-178 

2. Executive Department 

D. 342-343; Mc. 168, 198; T. 178-179 

3. Judicial Department 

1^- 343-347; ^fc. 169, 197; T. 179 

4. Ratification 

D. 347-349; Mc. 169-170; Ma. 211-213; T. 174- 
176; M. 193 

VII Organization of the New Government 

D, 349-351 ; Mc. 170-173; j\[a. 221-223; T. 181-182 



thu critical period 

The Nature of the National Government 

Although the Treaty of Paris ended the war, the conditions 
in the colonies from the standpoint of both business and gov- 
ernment continued very serious indeed until the ratification 
of the Constitution in 1788. In many ways the years between 
1783 and 1789 were the most dangerous and important in the 
history of the United States. The period covered by these 
years has been aptly and fittingly called by Fiske " The Criti- 
cal Period of American History." The bad condition of 
affairs during this period was due mainly to the fact that 
there was no strong central government in the United States. 
From the beginning of the Revolution until 1781, the Conti- 
nental Congress directed and attended to the general affairs 
of the states. There was no other form of national govern- 
ment. This Congress had no legal standing. It was not created 
by any constitution or law, and hence its powers and duties 
were not defined in any way. It tried to do those things 
which were necessary to carry on the war with success, but 
as it had no power to enforce its acts or laws, its efforts 
were not always successful, and as a result Washington's 
plans were often injured. It could not raise soldiers, levy 
taxes, or regulate commerce — three powers that a national 
government must have if it wishes to live and have its laws 
obeyed. All Congress could do was to ask the states to do 
certain things. It could not do them itself, neither could it 
compel the states to do them. Sometimes a state granted 
the request of Congress, and sometimes it did not. In 1781 — 
about two years before the war closed — a sort of written 
constitution went into effect. This constitution is known as 
the Articles of Confederation. It was prepared by Congress 
and submitted to the states in 1777, but not ratified by all 
the states and put into effect until 1781. This constitution 
simply put into written form and legalized the powers which 



158 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

Congress had already assumed and enjoyed. Congress was 
still the national or general government for all the states, 
and it had no more powers than it hdd before this written 
constitution or agreement had been adopted by the states. 
In some ways it had less power. It could not even request 
the states for soldiers or money unless a majority of the 
delegates from each of nine states voted in favor of making 
such request, whereas before, Congress could pass any meas- 
ure if but seven states voted for it. This was indeed a weak 
form of government and naturally did not secure the respect 
of the American people or of foreign governments. Even 
when the war was going on, the states often did not grant 
the requests of Congress, and after the actual pressure of war 
had been removed, each state did about as it pleased. Con- 
gress had no power to carry out its treaties and agreements 
with foreign governments, and as a result these governments, 
between 1783 and 1789, came to have less and less respect 
for the United States. The American people were to blame 
for this weak and inefficient national government. They 
were afraid that a strong central government would try to 
take away their rights as the government of England had 
tried to do. It required five hard and dangerous years after 
the end of the war to convince them that a strong central 
government was necessary to their happiness and to the 
welfare of the new nation. 

II The Northwest Territory; The Ordinance of 1787 

The most important law enacted by Congress under the 
Articles of Confederation was that known as the Ordinance of 
1787. This law provided for the organization and govern- 
ment of what was then called the Northwest Territory. This 
territory included what is now the states of Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin. During the greater part 
of the Revolution it was claimed by Virginia, Massachusetts, 
Connecticut and New York, but Maryland refused to ratify 
the Articles of Confederation until these states agreed to 
cede it to Congress, thus making it the common property 



Conditions of Money and Business 159 

of all the states. By 1786 the states had given up their 
individual claims and this vast territory came under the 
direct control of- Congress. The Ordinance of 1787 pro- 
viding for the government of this territory is very important, 
as it has been the basis of the government of all new terri- 
tory since acquired by the United States, except that acquired 
in the recent war with Spain. The more important pro- 
visions of the ordinance were those providing for the form- 
ing of new states out of this territory, and forever forbidding 
the existence of slavery in the Northwest Territory. A 
very important result of the cession of the Northwest Ter- 
ritory to Congress was that it tended to keep the states from 
separating during the critical period of our history. 

Ill Conditions of Money and Business 

The lack of good money in the United States during the 
Critical Period, and the bad condition of business caused 
great distress. No gold or silver money was made by the 
United States until 1793, and all the hard money used was 
the coin of other nations. After the Revolution nearly all 
of the hard money in the United States was paid out for 
imported goods which were much needed by the Americans 
and which were sent over in great quantities from England. 
During the Revolution Congress issued large sums of paper 
money to carry on the war, but as it soon became plain that 
Congress could never redeem this money, it very quickly 
became almost worthless. During the Critical Period there 
was a strong desire for paper money, which was issued by 
some of the states, and which, like the Continental Currency 
issued by Congress, soon became worthless. This worthless 
paper money and the lack of hard money caused conditions 
to become worse and worse. The people could not pay their 
taxes, and Congress had to borrow money for the running 
expenses of the government. Congress could not compel the 
states to comply with its request for money, and the credit 
of the United States became very poor among foreign nations. 
These bad conditions showed the need of a stronger central 



160 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

government, and this need was brought home more sharply 
to the people by the disputes among the states regarding the 
levying of import duties on one anothc. s products, and con- 
flicting land claims. 

IV Anarchy and Rebellion 

The disputes of the states over territory led to the raising 
of troops by some of the states, and while all these disputes 
were finally settled without actual warfare, they indicated 
plainly that war between the states might break out at any 
time. The refusal of Massachusetts to issue paper money 
led to the breaking out of an open insurrection — known as 
Shays's Rebellion — against the state authority. Some 2,000 
men took up arms, and it required more than 4,000 state 
troops to put down the insurrection. Such conditions alarmed 
all thinking people, and made them ready to sanction a central 
government that would be strong enough to protect life and 
property in all the states, and that would give peace and 
prosperity to the nation. 

V The Constitutional Convention 

I. Events Leading to the Convention 

The desirability of opening up and settling the country 
west of the Alleghanies led to a meeting of delegates from 
Maryland and Virginia at Washington's home in 1785 to 
discuss plans for improving navigation on the upper part 
of the Potomac river and for building roads in the new 
western country. During this meeting, which was held 
at Washington's suggestion, Washington suggested that 
Maryland and Virginia hold a joint convention for dis- 
cussing further the building of roads and canals, and for 
discussing uniformity of trade laws. Later it was decided 
to invite delegates from all the states to attend this conven- 
vention, but when the meeting assembled at Annapolis 
in September, 1785, it was found that only five of the states 
were represented. The delegates, therefore, did not at- 
tempt to settle any of these questions, but passed a reso- 



The Constitutional Convention 161 

lution suggesting to all the states that they send delegates 
to a convention to be held at Philadelphia in May of the 
following year. Congress recommended to the states that 
they appoint such delegates, and all the states did so except 
Rhode Island. 

2. Organisation of the Convention: CJiaracter of Members 

The Constitutional Convention is distinctly American, 
and the one that framed our National Constitution is by 
far the most important one ever held in America. It was 
composed of fifty-five members and represented all the 
states except Rhode Island. In almost every case the 
states sent their ablest men, and it is no doubt true that 
never before or since have so many able men come together 
for the purpose of discussing government. Washington, 
Franklin and Madison were the chief men in the conven- 
tion, but others were of only a little less importance. Al- 
though their work was to be very important, but few of 
the members had a definite idea of what they were to do, 
because the resolution which called the Convention simply 
stated in a general way that it was called for the purpose 
of providing a better central government for the United 
States. Washington was elected president of the Con- 
vention, and it sat with closed doors, everything being 
kept secret until its work was complete. 

3. Making the Constitution — The Three Great Compromises 

Some of the members of the Convention were afraid that 
the people would not ratify a constitution that provided for 
a strong central government, and they therefore suggested 
that the work of the Convention be restricted to revising 
the Articles of Confederation. It was soon decided by the 
advice of Washington and other leaders, to make a new 
constitution instead of trying to patch up the old one. Sev- 
eral plans for the new constitution were submitted to the 
convention by delegates from the various states. The 
Virginia plan, among other things, provided for a national 



162 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

legislature of two houses, the members of the lower house 
to be elected by the states according to their population or 
wealth, and those of the upper house to be elected by the 
members of the lower. This plan would give the large 
states much more power than the small states. The New 
Jersey plan proposed that the national legislature should 
consist of one house in which all the states should have the 
same number of representatives. This would give the 
small states an advantage and the government would be 
simply a league of states as before. The matter was finally 
settled by a compromise, but not until the discussion had 
nearly broken up the Convention. It was agreed that the 
national legislature should consist of two houses. The 
lower house, called the House of Representatives, was to 
be composed of members elected directly by the people, and 
the number of members from each state was to be deter- 
mined by the number of people in that state. The upper 
house, called the Senate, was to be composed of two mem- 
bers from each state, and they were to be elected by the 
state legislatures. This was the first great compromise of 
the Convention. The next compromise was between the 
northern and southern states over the question as to 
whether the slaves should be counted as population when 
apportioning representatives to a state. The southern men 
wished to have all the slaves counted, while the northern 
members did not want any of the slaves counted as pop- 
ulation. It was compromised by agreeing to allow five 
slaves to count as three white people when estimating 
population and national taxes. The third great compro- 
mise was over the question of commerce and the importa- 
tion of slaves. All the southern states were opposed to 
giving the new government complete control of commerce. 
South Carolina and Georgia wanted the right to continue 
the importation of slaves, but nearly all the other states 
were opposed to this. Finally it was agreed that Congress 
should have complete control of commerce and that slaves 
might be imported until i< 



The Constitution 163 

VI The Constitution 

1. Legislative Department 

The new Constitution provided for a national legisla- 
ture, called the Congress of the United States, composed 
of two houses — a lower house, called the House of Rep- 
resentatives, and an upper house called the Senate. The 
members of the lower house are elected by the people for 
a term of two years. The national government therefore 
acts upon each individual citizen, while the government 
under the Articles of Confederation acted upon the states. 
This is a most important difference, as it makes our pres- 
ent central government, a national government, while un- 
der the Articles of Confederation the government was 
simply a confederation of states. The members of the 
Senate are elected by the state legislatures for a term of 
six years. They represent the states and not the people 
directly. All the powers not granted to the national gov- 
ernment by the Constitution or prohibited to the states by 
it, still belong to the states, or the people. The Constitu- 
tion, however, gave the new government all the power 
necessary for a strong national government. 

2. Executive Department 

The Constitution created a strong executive department. 
The head of this department is called the President of the 
United States. He is Commander-in-Chief of the army 
and navy of the United States, and in addition to other 
important duties, he must defend the Constitution and 
execute the laws passed by Congress. There is also a 
vice-president elected at the same time and in the same 
manner as the President. In order to assist the President, 
Congress has, from time to time, created a number of ex- 
ecutive departments, whose secretaries constitute the Presi- 
dent's Cabinet, and are consulted by him on important 
matters. In addition to his executive duties the Presi- 
dent takes an important part in legislation since he may 



164 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

veto any bill passed by Congress, and such bill cannot 
then become a law unless it is passed in each house of 
Congress by a two-thirds vote. 

3 Judicial Department 

The Constitution created a judicial department which 
was to consist of a Supreme Court of the United States, 
and of such inferior courts as Congress might see fit to 
establish. By the wise legislation of Congress the judicial 
department has become of great importance in our govern- 
ment. In addition to the Supreme Court, which is at the 
head of the department, a number of lower courts have 
been created by Congress. All the judges of all these 
courts are appointed by the President, but each appoint- 
ment must be confirmed by the Senate. It is the duty of 
these courts to interpret and apply the laws that relate 
to the national government. The Constitution, the laws 
passed by Congress, and the treaties of the United States 
are interpreted by the regular United States courts. Cases 
may be tried first in the District Courts, then appealed in 
succession to the Circuit Courts, Circuit Court of Appeals, 
and to the Supreme Court. In all cases the decision of 
the Supreme Court is final. The Supreme Court may 
declare an act of the President's, or a law passed by Con- 
gress unconstitutional and therefore null and void. Thus 
the Supreme Court is at the very head of the national 
government. No other judicial body in the world has such 
power, and in establishing such a body the Constitutional 
Convention created a new principle of government. 

4. Ratification 

When the Constitution was given to the states for rati- 
fication the people soon became divided into two parties, 
and there began one of the ablest and most remarkable 
campaigns in the history of America. Many feared that 
the central government provided was too strong and might 
become unjust and overthrow the rights of the people. 



Organization of the Nezc Government loo 

Those favoring the ratification of the Constitution were 
called Federalists, and those opposed, Anti-Federalists. 
Hamilton and Madison were the leaders of those who 
favored the Constitution, and they did a magnificent work 
in urging its adoption. The Constitution provided that 
it should go into effect as soon as ratified by nine states. 
The nine states necessary had ratified the Constitution by 
March, 1788, and the others soon followed. 

VIT Organization of the New Government 

By the ratification of the new Constitution, the govern- 
ment created by the Articles of Confederation came to an 
end. The first presidential election under the Constitu- 
tion occurred in January, 1789. Washington received 
every vote, and thus became the first President of the 
United States. John Adams received the next largest 
number and became vice-president. Congress at once 
proceeded to organize the different departments of gov- 
ernment in accordance with the Constitution. It passed 
laws organizing the judicial department, and establishing 
four cabinet departments. Thus came to an end the 
Critical Period of American History, and thus went into 
effect the present Constitution of the United States, 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Why may the time between 1783 and 1789 be called ''The Critical 
Period of American History?" Describe the nature of the national govern- 
ment during the Revolution until the adoption of the Articles of Con- 
federation in 1781. Describe the nature of the national government pro- 
vided for by the Articles of Confederation. In what way did the Articles 
of Confederation assist to bring about the bad condition of affairs that 
existed during the Critical Period? During this period why were the 
people opposed to creating a strong central government? 

To what territory did the Ordinance of 1787 apply? Describe in full 
the government provided for by this ordinance. Discuss the importance 
of this ordinance with regard to slavery and the government of the 
territories of the United States. Describe fully the conditions of money 
and business during the Critical Period. What brought about these 
conditions? Give a careful discussion of the more important results of 
these conditions. Describe fully what is meant by "Anarchy and Rebellion" 
during the Critical Period. How did this threaten the life of the nation? 
How did these disturbances assist in preparing the way for the adoption 
of a strong central government? 

Describe fully the events leading to the Constitutional Convention. 
Tell what you can about the men that composed the convention. How 
was the convention organized? Did the convention exceed the purpose 
for which it was called? Describe fully each of the three great com- 
promises of the convention. (In studying the national government in 
accordance with the questions which follow, the pupil should make constant 
use of the Constitution.) For how many departments of government did 
the new Constitution provide? Compare this plan of government with 
that which existed during colonial times and also with that which exists 
in the states at the present time. Describe in a general way the legislative 
department created by the Constitution. What powers and duties belong 
to the House of Representatives that do not belong to the Senate? What 
are the reasons for this? What powers and duties belong to the Senate 
that do not belong to the House of Representatives? What are the reasons 
for this ? Describe the general powers and duties of Congress. How 
are senators and representatives elected? What is the reason for having 
a senator's term of office longer than that of a representative? Describe 
in a general way the executive department created by the Constitution. 
How are the President and Vice-President of the United States elected, 



Questions and Topics 167 

and for how long a term? Describe in full the President's Cabinet and 
its general powers and duties. Describe fully the general powers and 
duties of the President. What power has the President in legislation? 
What are the duties of the Vice-President? Describe in a general way 
the judicial department created by the Constitution. Describe briefly the 
different classes of United States courts. Discuss the general powers 
and duties of the judicial department. Compare with regard to its power 
the Supreme Court of the United States with the supreme courts of other 
nations. 

When the Constitution was submitted to the people for their approval, 
why were many opposed to its ratification? Explain fully what is meant 
by Federalist and Anti-Federalist during the campaign for the ratification 
of the Constitution. Who were some of the leading Federalists and Anti- 
Federalists? Who wrote "The Federalist," and what was its effect on the 
campaign for the ratification of the Constitution? Discuss briefly the 
campaign which resulted in the ratification of the Constitution. Discuss 
the organization of the new government. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the nature of the national government during the Critical 
Period. Discuss the conditions of the country during the Critical Period. 
Discuss the Ordinance of 1787. Discuss the events which led to the 
Constitutional Convention. Explain fully the three great compromises. 
Discuss the national government provided for by the Constitution. Discuss 
the ratification of the Constitution. 



NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN 
INTERFERENCE 

A THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

(In connection with the study of period of European interfer- 
ence, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's Source 
Readers, pp. 217-315.) 

I Origin of American Neutrality in European 

Affairs, 1793 

D. 356-362; Mc. 206-207; Ma. 227-228; G. 217-219; 
T. 189-190; M. 198-199 

II The Jay Treaty, 1795 

D. 362-364; Mc. 207-209; Ma. 229-230; G. 219; T. 
1 90- 19 1 ; M. 202-204 

HI Breach with France, 1799-1800 

D. 364-367; Mc. 210-214; Ma. 230-232; G. 220-221; 
T. 194-197; M. 204 

IV The Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798 

D. 367-369; Mc. 211-212; Ma. 232; G. 221-222; T. 
195; M. 205 

V The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, i 798-1 799 

D. 369-370; Mc. 212-213; Ma. 232-235; G. 222-22^; 
T. 195-196; M. 205 

VI The Purchase of Louisiana, 1803 

D. 370-374; Mc. 218; Ma. 237-238; G. 229-232; T. 
201-204 ; M. 208-209 

VII European Interference with American Com- 

merce, 1800-1812 

I. Decrees and Orders in Council, 1806-18 10 

D- 374-376; Mc. 224-227; Ma. 241-243; G. 237- 
239; T. 210-21 1 ; M. 211 



The Period of European Interference 169 

2. Jefferson's Embargo Policy, 180/-180Q 

D. 376-378 ; Mc. 226-228, 250 ; Ma. 244 ; G. 239- 
241 ; T. 211-212; M. 211-212 

VIII The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial 

Independence, 1812-1814 

1 . Causes 

D. 378-379; H. III. 228-231 ; Mc. 231 ; Ma. 244- 
247; G. 242-244; T. 215; M. 215-217 

2. The War on Land 

D. 379-385; H. III. 274-312; Mc. 233, 235, 238; 
Ma. 247-248; 251-255; G. 246, 247-248, 249- 
250; T. 216-223; M. 217-218, 222-224 

3. The War on the Sea 

D. 385-387; H. III. 223-255; Mc. 234-237; Ma. 
248-252, 253 ; G. 244-246, 246-247, 248 ; T. 
217-220; M. 218-220, 222-223 

4. Results 

D. 387 

(a) Treaty of Peace, 18 14 

Mc. 239 ; Ma. 255 ; G. 252 ; T. 223-224 ; 
M. 224 

(b) Commercial and Industrial Results 

Ma. 257 ; M. 224 

(c) Effect on the Nation 

Mc. 239 ; Ma. 255-256 ; G. 252 ; T. 229 

IX The Hartford Convention, 1814 

D. 387-389; Ma. 256; G. .251 ; T. 224-225; M. 224 

X Purchase of Florida, 1819 

D. 389; Mc. 260-262; Ma. 258-259; T. 230-231; 
M. 227 



170 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

XI The Monroe Doctrine, 1823 

D. 389-392; ]Mc. 262-265; Ma. 267-268; G. 254-256; 
T. 238-240; M. 232-233 

B FINANCIAL LEGISLATION : THE TARIFF 

I Hamilton's Financial Measures, 1790-1791 

D. 393-398; Mc. 198-202; Ma. 223-226; G. 211-213, 
214; T. 184-186; M. 197-198 

1. Tariff Duties 

2. Excise 

3. Funding of National Debt 

4. Assumption of State Debts 

5. Establis/iment of the United States Bank 

II Jefferson and Gallatin's Financial Policy, 1801- 

1809 

D. 398-399; Ale. 216-218; Ma. 236 

III The National Bank and State Banks 

D. 399-400; Mc. 255-257, Ma. 224, 256; T. 226-227 

IV Tariff Legislation 

1. The First Tariff Act, lySp 

D. 400-401; Mc. 197; Ma. 223; T. 184; M. 197, 
24611 

2. Grozvth of the Idea of Protection 

D. 401-402; Mc. 303; Ma. 241, 257; T. 231, 232, 
240, 248 ; M. 245-246 



C POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Rise of Political Parties 

D. 402-405; Mc. 170, 202-203; Ma. 221, 224, 225-228, 
230; G. 211, 220, 263; T. 174-175, 189; M. 195 



GroTvth of the Nation 171 

II Fall of the Federalist Party 

D. 404-405; ^ic. 211, 259; Ala. 232-235, 245; T. 195, 
198, 225, 228 

III The Republican Party 

D. 405-408; Mc. 215, 229, 259-260, 277, 297-301 ; Ma. 
235-236, 256; G. 224-226; T. 198-201, 228-229, 241- 
242 ; M. 206 

D GROWTH OF THE NATION 

(In connection with the study of this subject, each pupil should 
read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 143-215.) 

I Growth in Territory and Population 

D. 408; Ale. 241, 244-246, 266-268; Ala. 237, 238-240, 
258; G. 226, 229, 232, 254; T. 244 

II AIOVEMENT OF POPULATION 

D. 408-410; AIc. 241-242; Ala. 214, 221; G. 229, 232 

1. Causes 

2. Direction 

III Results of Westward Expansion 

1. Formation of States 

D. 410-412; AIc. 243-245: Ala. 257-259 

2. Internal Improvements 

D. 412-413; AIc. 251-252, 279-286; Ala. 216-218; 
260-264; T. 209, 233-235, 245; AI. 231-232, 
235-236 

3. Struggle Over Slavery: The Missouri Compromise, 

1820 

D. 413-415; AIc. 274-276; Ala. 219, 259-260; T. 
235-238; AI. 227-231 

IV Growth of National Unity 

D. 415-417; ^^a. 255 



172 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 
E INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

I Industrial Conditions 

D. 418; Mc. 301-303; Ma. 215-216 

1. Manufacttires 

D. 418-421 ; Mc. 249-250; Ma. 216 

2. Agriculture 

D. 421-422; Mc. 248-249; T. 244 

3. Commerce 

D. 422-423; Mc. 248-249; Ma. 215, 241, 257 

4. Transportation and Communication 

D. 422-427; H. III. 84-104; Mc. 252-253; Ma. 
216-218, 240, 260-264; G. 207, 228, 234, 256, 
259-263 ; T. 212, 233-235, 244 

II Social Conditions 

(In connection with the study of this subject each pupil 
should read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, 
pp. 1-142.) 

D. 427-428; H. III. 56-61, 126-138, 143-149; Ma. 
218-219 

III Government 

D. 428-429 

IV Religion 

D. 429-430; H. III. 53; Ma. 219 

V Education 

(In connection with this subject, each pupil should read 
the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 317-371.) 

D. 430-431 ; Ma. 264-266 



NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN 
INTERFERENCE 

The history of the United States from the time the new gov- 
ernment was organized in the spring of 1789 to the beginning 
of the Civil War in 1861, may be divided into two periods. The 
first period extends from 1789 to about 1828, and the second 
period from about this date to the Civil War. This division is 
based on strictly historical grounds, and is not made simply as a 
matter of convenience. The history of the United States during 
each of these periods was shaped and controlled by many forces 
and conditions, but there were certain causes and conditions that 
had the main or controlling effect upon the history of each period. 
During the greater part of the first period, the interference of 
foreign nations in the affairs of the United States had a pro- 
found, important, and controlling effect on our history. A large 
part of the legislation of Congress related either directly or indi- 
rectly to this interference. This constant meddling in our affairs 
by Europe led finally to another war with England, which secured 
for the United States the proper respect and consideration of all 
the other nations. The main or controlling force in the history 
of the United States during the second period was the question 
of slavery in its relation to the westward growth of the nation 
in territory and population. During both periods the growth of 
the United States in territory, wealth and population was most 
rapid and important, but the main question in relation to this 
growth during the first period was European interference and 
the main question during the second period was slavery. During 
the first period, however, slavery was quietly becoming more and 
more firmly established in the South, but the pressure of foreign 
nations on the United States and the manner in which the west- 
ern country was settled, kept this question fairly quiet. The 
opposition to Europe during the first period tended to unite the 
American people and to create in them a patriotism and love for 
the nation and the National government, and to break down the 
idea of state sovereignty that existed when the Constitution was 



174 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

adopted. During this first period, however, slavery was quietly 
causing the social and the industrial conditions of the North and 
South to become more and more unlike, and during the second 
period this resulted in bitter discussions that ended in a dreadful 
Civil War. It therefore becomes plain that the controlling forces 
or conditions in the history of the United States from 1789 to 
about 1828 were European interference in our affairs and the 
rapid growth of the nation in territory and population, and that 
the controlling force or condition in our history from about 1828 
to 1861 was the slavery question in relation to this continued 
rapid growth of the nation in territory and population. Because 
of these controlling forces and conditions, the first period will be 
called. National Growth and European Interference, and the 
second period will be called. Westward Expansion and Slavery. 

THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

I Origin of American Neutrality in European Affairs, 
1793 

In 1793 war broke out between France and England. The 
people of the United States were in favor of assisting France. 
To do this meant the destruction of American commerce, 
and war with the English and Indians along the frontier of 
the United States. It also meant that the United States 
would be involved in European struggles which did not affect 
American affairs. The time had come when the United 
States must decide whether she would meddle in European 
affairs which did not concern her particularly and which 
must often involve a useless loss of life and property, or 
whether she would remain neutral. Washington foresaw the 
vast importance of this decision, and after mature delibera- 
tion announced in a proclamation that the policy of the United 
States should be non-interference in European affairs. This 
decision marked Washington as a statesman of the highest 
rank. The people all over the United States, in mass meet- 
ings and through the press, were urging the government to 



The Period of European Interference 175 

assist France, but Washington held fast to his purpose, and 
was finally sustained by Congress. This action on Washing- 
ton's part was made doubly hard by the presence in America 
of Genet, an agent of the French government, who roused 
great enthusiasm among the people, and swung public opin- 
ion to the side of the French. By the treaty made with 
France during the Revolution, the United States was under 
obligations to aid France in case of war with Great Britain. 
The United States, however, was not called upon by the 
French government to fulfill these obligations. The American 
government would have been placed in an awkward position 
had such a demand been made. Thus was born American 
Neutrality and the United States has ever since held stead- 
fastly to this principle. The importance to the United States 
of this principle or unwritten law can hardly be overesti- 
mated. It has saved this nation from many a bloody and use- 
less war, and has permitted it to develop its natural resources 
unmolested by European quarrels and conflicts. The United 
States under Washington established the unwritten law that 
she should not interfere in the affairs of Europe which did 
not concern her and thirty years later, under Monroe, she es- 
tablished the unwritten law that no European nation should 
interfere with strictly American affairs unless directly con- 
cerned. 

The Jay Treaty, 1795 

Some important questions had been left unsettled by the 
treaty of 1783 at the close of the Revolution, and the war 
between France and England gave rise to other difficulties, 
especially concerning American trade. The English insisted 
on enforcing what is known as the "Rule of 1756" which 
provided that a neutral could not enjoy in time of war a trade 
prohibited in time of peace. For instance : The Americans 
were not allowed to trade with the French West Indies in 
time of peace, but when the war broke out with England, 
the French wxre glad to open their West Indian ports to 



176 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

American commerce for the sake of obtaining supplies. By 
the Rule of 1756, which Great Britain now put into force, 
this trade was forbidden to Americans, and thus their com- 
merce was greatly injured. Another contention arose re- 
garding the right of England to impress British sailors from 
American vessels into the British navy. England claimed 
the right to search American vessels anywhere on the seas 
for British sailors, and to forcibly remove them to British 
ships. In order to settle these various difficulties, Chief 
Justice Jay was sent by Washington to England to make 
a treaty. Some of the provisions of the treaty were not favor- 
able to the United States and there was much adverse dis- 
cussion before the treaty was finally ratified. While the 
treaty was not very favorable to American interests it accom- 
plished its purpose — the avoidance of war with England at 
that time. 

III Breach with France, 1796-1799 

The Jay treaty gave to England valuable commercial 
rights. France was irritated by the Genet afifair and the 
Neutrality Proclamation, and the Jay treaty, favorable as it 
was to England, still further exasperated her. The Genet 
affair had done much to turn American sympathy from 
France, and the insults to the American representatives in 
France — the X. Y. Z. afifair — roused the indignation of the 
United States. For awhile diplomacy seemed unable to 
avert war between the two countries. In fact fighting actu- 
ally began on the sea, but the uniform success of the Ameri- 
can navy and a change of government in France caused her 
to re-open diplomatic relations and war was averted. 

IV The Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798 

The firm stand taken by the Federalists in the trouble with 
France made Adams and the Federalists very popular, but 
the passage by Congress of several laws, known as the Alien 
and Sedition Laws, brought them suddenly into great dis- 
favor. The violent and abusive attacks on the administra- 



The Period of European Interference 177 

tion and the Federalist leaders by the Republican papers, a 
large number of whose editors were foreigners, led to the 
passage of these laws. The first law against aliens raised 
the period of residence necessary for naturalization to four- 
teen years. The act known as the Alien Act gave the Presi- 
dent power to deport from the United States any foreigners 
whom he considered dangerous to the country. The Sedi- 
tion Act gave the President and the officers of the govern- 
ment the right to imprison and fine those who uttered or 
wrote anything of a seditious or treasonable nature against 
the government, or even anything which tended to defame 
the government or any of its officers. The Sedition Act was 
aimed against the press, and was the first and last attempt 
of the national government to interfere with its freedom. 

V The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798- 1799 

The Alien and Sedition Laws were fiercely attacked by the 
Republicans led by Jefferson and Madison. They felt that 
the Federalist party was using its power in the government 
to destroy the rights of the people. This feeling took definite 
shape in the legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky, which 
passed resolutions on the subject. The Kentucky resolutions 
were drawn up by Jefferson and were quite radical. They 
stated that the Constitution was a compact between sovereign 
states, and that laws passed by Congress which were judged 
un-constitutional by a state might be declared null and void 
by that state. The Virginia Resolutions were drawn up by 
Madison. They also called the Constitution a compact, and 
put forth nullification as the rightful remedy in case of the 
passage of laws in violation of the Constitution. Both of 
these series of resolutions are of great importance because 
they were the first definite expression of the doctrine of 
State Rights as opposed to National Sovereignty. 

VI The Purchase of Louisiana, 1803 

The Mississippi river was the main outlet for the commerce 
of all the American territory between the Alleghanies and 



178 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

the Mississippi, hence the possession of the mouth of the 
great river was a matter of great importance to the settlers 
of this region. So long as Spain held this, there was little 
to be feared by the Americans, for Spain was a weak nation, 
and by a treaty made in 1795 allowed the United States the 
right of deposit — that is, the right to land merchandise, or 
to transfer it from river boats and steamers to sea-going 
vessels — at New Orleans. In 1802 Spain ceded the entire 
Louisiana territory, including the mouth of the Mississippi, 
to France. This was a just cause of alarm and protest for 
the Americans. Napoleon, who was master of France and 
very powerful in continental Europe at that time, had plans 
for building up an American Empire, and seemed to be in a 
position to do so. The closing of the port of New Orleans 
to American trade at the time of the transfer of the territory 
from Spain to France brought forth such a protest from ihe 
western settlers that Jefiferson sent a commission to France 
to try to buy the territory at the mouth of the river. Na- 
poleon at first refused, but the failure of an expedition to 
San Domingo, and the renewal of war with England led him 
to change his mind and he offered to sell not only the land 
at the mouth of the river, but the whole of the Louisiana ter- 
ritory to the United States. He was afraid that England 
might get possession of this territory, and, if France must 
lose it, he preferred that it should belong to the United States. 
The price paid for this vast domain was only $15,000,000. 

During the administrations of Washington and Adams, 
Jefferson had advocated a strict construction of the Constitu- 
tion, but in the purchase of Louisiana he gave it a looser 
construction than the Federalists had ever dared to give. 

VII European Interference with American Commerce, 
1800-1812 

I. Decrees and Orders in Council, 1806-18 10 

From 1803 to 181 5, France and England were continu- 
ously at war. Each nation tried to injure the other by de- 



The Period of European Interference 179 

stroying its commerce. In order to do this the British b> 
"Orders in Council" and Napoleon by "Decrees," would 
declare the ports of the other to be in a state of blockade, 
although they were unable to make such blockade effective 
by actually keeping war vessels at the ports declared 
blockaded. England and France both claimed the right 
to take as prizes all merchant vessels trading with the 
enemy in violation of the commercial regulations which 
each had issued. This policy, if carried out, would have 
resulted in the destruction of American commerce. The 
United States, however, maintained that a neutral state 
had a right to trade freely with either of the nations at 
war, unless her ports were actually blockaded. From 1803 
to 1809 the dispute on this point between the United States 
and the two nations at war, England and France, was al- 
most continuous ; and on several occasions it came very 
nearly involving the United States in war. In fact it would 
have done so had it not been for the weak attitude of 
Jefferson. 

2. Jefferson's Embargo Policy, i8o/-i8op 

Jefferson tried to injure first England and then France 
by having Congress pass what were known as the Non- 
Importation and the Embargo Acts. The Non-Importation 
Act forbade the importation of goods from Eng- 
land. The Embargo was much more severe and for- 
bade the sending of any goods from the United 
States to any foreign nation. As the Embargo bore more 
heavily on America than on any other nation, it was not a 
success, and was abandoned. A law forbidding commerce 
with England or France but allowing it with other nations 
was passed in place of the Embargo Law, and was much 
better for American commerce. 

VIII The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Inde- 
pendence, 1812-1814 
I . Causes 

The causes of this war were primarily interference with 



180 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

American trade, and impressment of American seamen. 
The character of the United States Congress at this time 
also had much to do with the bringing on of the war. Very 
few of the statesmen who controlled affairs during and for 
a quarter of a century after the Revolution were now mem- 
bers of the national legislature. Statesmen of a younger 
generation had come into power. They represented the 
young and rising democracy of America, and especially of 
the West. They were full of hope and strength, believed 
in the future greatness of the United States, and were hu- 
miliated and annoyed by the continual insults offered this 
nation by France and England. From the first they were 
determined to end this humiliation, even though compelled 
to resort to war. Both England and France were involved 
in offenses against American commerce and American 
seamen ; but Great Britain was not only the greater of- 
fender in these respects, but had also offended in other 
ways, so war was declared against her. The arrogant 
bearing of the English leaders toward America was irri- 
tating to Americans, and the continual Indian troubles on 
the frontiers, which were due largely to English influence, 
also caused bitter feeling. 

2. The War on Land 

In this war the Americans were, as a rule, unsuccessful 
in their campaigns on land. The soldiers were untrained, 
and the officers, frequently owing their appointments to 
political reasons, were generally incompetent. Neither na- 
tion, however, was successful in invading the territory of 
the other. The two most notable events of the war on land 
were the capture of Washington and the burning of its 
public buildings by the British, and the disastrous defeat 
of an army of British veterans at New Orleans by General 
Jackson. 

3. The War on the Sea 

Although, at the beginning of the war, the Americans 
had but twelve vessels as against England's twelve hun- 



The Period of European Interference 181 

dred, the American navy succeeded in winning a series of 
brilliant victories, and often against great odds. Because 
of England's superiority in the number of ships, most of 
the American vessels were finally either driven from the 
sea or blockaded in the harbors of the United States. Per- 
haps even more important than the w^ork of the regular 
navy was the injury which American privateers did to the 
commerce of England. 

4. Results 

(a) Treaty of Peace 

The points of dispute which caused the war were not 
mentioned in the treaty of peace. The treaty provided 
for the restoration of the conquests of both parties, and 
arranged for the settlement of boundary disputes and 
other minor points. 

(b) Commercial and Industrial Results 

The main result of this war was the commercial inde- 
pendence of the United States, and never since then has 
any nation interfered with American commerce or at- 
tempted the impressment of American seamen. The 
restrictions on commerce during the war caused the birth 
of American factories by compelling the capitalists, 
especially in the North, to invest in manufacturing rather 
than in shipping enterprises, and by compelling the 
people of the country to rely upon home industry for 
their manufacturing goods. 

(c) Effect on the Nation 

The war had the effect of welding the Nation more 
firmly, and of making it independent not only of Europe, 
but of its own colonial traditions. It compelled a broader 
interpretation of the powers of the Constitution. The 
Nation now took a higher position among the nations of 
the world than it had held before. 



182 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

IX The Hartford Convention, 1814 

As one of the principal industries of New England was 
foreign commerce, the Embargo and Non-Importation policy 
of Jefferson, and especially the Enforcement Act which pro- 
vided drastic measures for the enforcement of this policy, 
bore heavily upon the business interests of that section. The 
people of New England soon became strongly opposed to 
these laws which interfered with her commerce. In 1809 
the legislature of Massachusetts passed resolutions which in 
spirit were much the same as the Virginia and Kentucky 
Resolutions. New England was strongly Federalist, and 
was vigorously opposed to Jefferson and the principles of 
the Republican party. The people of New England were 
also inclined to be friendly with England because of com- 
mercial relations with that nation, and were therefore opposed 
to the War of 1812. As this war progressed, New England 
became still more strongly opposed to it, and events seemed 
to indicate that her leaders were contemplating some kind of 
armed resistance to the national government. In 18 14 dele- 
gates from the various New England states met in conven- 
tion at Hartford, Connecticut, to consider plans for unity of 
action on the part of New England. This convention 
conducted its proceedings behind closed doors, and 
drew up resolutions declaring, among other things, that when 
the Constitution was violated by acts of Congress, it became 
the duty of a state to interpose its authority. The Conven- 
tion sent a delegate to Congress bearing these and other 
resolutions of similar nature, but before the delegate reached 
Congress, peace was declared. 

X The Purchase of Florida, 1819 

The United States had long wished to secure the Floridas, 
and during the war of 181 2 had seized a part of West Florida. 
Spain was unable to govern well her possessions so far from 
home, and Florida was in a constant turmoil. It was made 
a refuge by all sorts of criminals, and was the source of con- 



The Period of European Interference 183 

stant trouble to the United States. The invasion of Florida 
by an expedition under Andrew Jackson which had been sent 
against the Seminole Indians in Georgia, brought matters 
to a crisis. This resulted in Spain's selling East Florida to the 
United States for $5,000,000 and giving up all her claims to 
West Florida. The United States, at the same time, gave up 
its claim to Texas. 

XI The Monroe Doctrine, 1823 

About 181 5 Russia announced that she claimed the Pacific 
Coast from Alaska down to the 51st parallel, and that no 
foreign vessel should approach within one hundred miles of 
the shore. It was her evident intention to extend her in- 
fluence southward and to shut out the United States from the 
Pacific Coast. John Quincy Adams, as Secretary of State, 
entered a vigorous protest against these designs of Russia, 
in which he stated that neither North nor South America 
was open to further European colonization. Between 1810 
and 1822 all of the Spanish-American colonies in North and 
South America, taking advantage of the weakened condition 
of Spain, threw off Spanish authority and established inde- 
pendent republics, which were recognized by the United 
States as independent powers. These republics included 
Mexico and all of South America save Brazil, which still 
belonged to Portugal. In 181 5 nearly all of the European 
powers, except England, formed what is known as the Holy 
Alliance, their object being to perpetuate monarchical gov- 
ernment and to assist Spain in the recovery of her lost pos- 
sessions. Great Britain proposed that the United States com- 
bine with her against this Holy Alliance. The United States 
declined to act in concert with Great Britain, but President 
Monroe, at the suggestion of Adams, included in his annual 
message to Congress a statement known as the Monroe Doc- 
trine. This statement defined the attitude of the United 
States on the question of European colonization in the New 
World and European interference with American republics. 



184 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

The doctrine has ever since been adhered to by the United 
States, and in substance is as follows : 

1. European nations will not be permitted to establish 
any new colonies in America or to add any more terri- 
tory to those already existing. 

2. European nations will not be permitted to interfere 
with the internal affairs of American republics. 

The Monroe Doctrine was the logical result of the prin- 
ciple of American Neutrality established by Washington. 



FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

I Hamilton's Financial Measures, i 790-1791 

The new government found the national treasury empty, 
with a debt of about $54,000,000 on hand, and the credit of 
the United States both at home and among foreign nations 
almost worthless. Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the 
Treasury, brought forward a plan for placing the financial 
affairs of the government on a firm foundation. This plan 
proved him to be one of the ablest financiers in the United 
States. His plan was as follows : 

1. A slight increase in the duties laid by the first tariff. 

2. An excise or internal tax to be placed on distilled 
liquors. 

3. The funding of the National Debt. The old bonds of 
the nation had fallen to twenty-five per cent of their face 
value. New United States bonds were to be issued for 
the total face value of the old and exchanged for them. 

4. The assumption of state debts. Debts contracted by 
the states during the Revolution for its support were to 
be assumed and paid in full by the national government. 



Financial Legislation 185 

5. Establishment of the United States' Bank. The man- 
agement of the bank was to be private, but the United 
States was to be a large share holder, reserving the 
right of examining into its financial condition. His 
object here was to enable the government to manage its 
financial affairs more easily and to give stability to money 
matters throughout the country. 
After much discussion Hamilton's entire plan for estab- 
lishing the credit of the national government was adopted. 
The result of its operation was better than Hamilton him- 
self had dared hope. The credit of the United States was 
firmly established, both at home and abroad. It was not long 
before a dollar's worth of United States bonds was worth 
a dollar of gold in London, whereas before a dollar's worth 
of these bonds was worth less than twenty-five cents. The 
success of this plan tended to give the people confidence in 
the strength, power, and dignity of the national government. 

Jeffersox axd Gallatin's Financial Policy, 1801-1809 

The public debt of the United States had increased from 
about $77,000,000 in 1792 to nearly $83,000,000 in 1800. The 
income had increased in the same period from less than $4,- 
000,000 to more than $10,000,000. Jefferson advocated a 
reduction of public expenses in order to lessen the taxes and 
to pay the public debt. The Secretary of the Treasury, Al- 
bert Gallatin, formed a plan for the carrying out of this 
policy. The reduction in expense was accomplished by re- 
ducing the army about one-half, and the navy from twenty- 
seven vessels in commission for service to seven, and by stop- 
ping all construction of vessels for the navy. This was prac- 
tically the destruction of the military defenses of the Nation, 
but this policy, together with other measures, was so suc- 
cessful in accomplishing its purpose that by 1808 the public 
debt had been reduced to $45,000,000 and the taxes had been 
reduced more than $1,000,000. although the expenses of the 
government had constantly increased, and Louisiana had been 
bought and paid for in this period. Gallatin's success marks 
him as a financier of great ability. 



18G NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

III The National Bank and State Banks 

At the time of the estabHshment of the National Bank in 
1 79 1 there were only four State banks in existence; when the 
twenty year charter of the National Bank expired in 1811, 
there were eighty-eight of these state banks in existence, and 
in the three years following, this number was more than 
doubled. In general these State banks were hostile to the 
National bank, for they hoped to secure its business and the 
government deposits. Some of the states were interested 
in these banks, and for that and other reasons took action 
in their legislatures against renewing the charter of the Na- 
tional Bank. Many feared the influence of this bank as a 
monopoly, and also as a corrupt factor in politics. All these 
and other influences prevented the renewal of the charter in 
181 1, and thus during the war of 1812, when most needed, a 
tried and solid financial system was lacking in the United 
States. At the close of the war the financial affairs of the 
nation were in a bad condition and because of this, Congress 
in 18 16, renewed the charter of the United States Bank for a 
period of twenty years. 

IV Tariff Legislation 

1. The First Tariff Act, lySp 

In order to secure revenue for the new government the 
first Congress at once proceeded to levy import duties. 
During the discussion of the bill for this purpose, the 
question as to whether one of the main objects of import 
duties should be the protection of American industries, 
was first brought before the American people. The main 
object of this bill as passed was the obtaining of revenue, 
but the law was also protective in a small measure. 

2. Groii'tJi of t/ie Idea of Protection 

Up to 1816 there was very little change in the tariff 
policy of the United States. While the duties were changed 
and in many cases increased from time to time, the principle 



Political Parties 18" 

of tariff for revenue chiefly remained the same. The War 
of 1812, however, had aided the development of Ameri- 
can manufactures and their protection and encouragement 
by the government became a matter of great importance. 
This led to the passing of a tariff law in 1816 which had 
for its express purpose the protection of American indus- 
tries. This principle was established still more firmly by 
the passage in 1824 of a still higher protective tariff. 

There was practically no opposition to the tariff policy 
of the government up to the adoption of the principle of 
protection. Even in 18 16 the opposition was not strong, 
but in the few years following it gathered strength, espe- 
cially in the South. The northern and eastern states had 
developed valuable manufacturing interests, and these sec- 
tions were, as a whole, favorable to a protective policy. 
The South, on the other hand, had remained almost entirely 
agricultural, and had developed no manufacturing interests 
of importance. The people of the South, therefore, thought 
they had nothing to gain by the principle of protection, 
and became strongly opposed to it. While those in Xew 
England who were engaged in manufacturing favored a 
protective tariff, those who were engaged in foreign com- 
merce were opposed to it from the first. 



POLITICAL PARTIES 

Rise of Political Parties 

Political parties in the L'nited States had their real origin 
during Washington's administration. They began with the 
difference of opinion on the part of the people and statesmen 
of the L'nited States as to the nature of the new government. 
Section 8, Article I, of the Constitution, after enumerating 
specific duties of Congress, says that Congress shall have 
power " To make all Laws which shall be necessary and 



188 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, 
and all Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government 
of the United States, or in any Department or Officer there- 
of." Washington, Hamilton and Adams were the leaders 
of those who thought that the Constitution should be loosely 
interpreted ; that is, that this clause should be taken to mean 
that the new government should exercise not only the powers 
specifically granted to it by the Constitution, but that it should 
also assume such implied powers as might be necessary 
or even expedient to carry out those powers specifically 
given to it. They wished to centralize the government, and 
believed that it should be controlled by the well-born, edu- 
cated and wealthy classes. Jefferson and Madison were the 
leaders of those who believed that the Constitution should 
be strictly construed ; that Congress should assume only 
such implied powers as were absolutely necessary to carry out 
the powers specifically given to it. They did not believe that 
the government should be centralized or controlled by the 
upper classes. They had faith in the common people, and 
believed that the affairs of government could be safely en- 
trusted to them. But while Jefferson held these democratic 
views, his ideas were very different from those represented 
by the rising democracy which came into power with the 
election of Jackson in 1828. During his administration, 
Jefferson, in a measure, became converted to the loose con- 
struction of the Constitution. W'ashington, Hamilton and 
Adams and their followers became known as the Federalist 
party, and Jefferson and his party were called the Anti-Fed- 
eralist or Republican party. 

H Fall of the Federalist Party 

During the first years of the government under the Con- 
stitution the Federalist party was supreme. Washington and 
John Adams were Federalist presidents, Washington's term 
lasting from 1789 to 1797, and Adams's from 1797 to 1801. 
To that party must be given the credit of establishing the 
government upon a sound and not too radical basis. Yet it 



Political Parties 189 

was doomed by its very makeup to early destruction. It was 
out of harmony with the rising democratic spirit of the 
Repubhc, and its fall marked not only the end of a political 
party, but also the passing of the old aristocratic ideas of 
government from American political life. The chief cause 
of the fall of the Federalist party was its theory of govern- 
ment by the leaders rather than by the mass of the people, 
which was not in accord with the democratic tendencies of the 
age, and it was this that made the fall of the party per- 
manent. The passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts brought 
a great deal of unpopularity on the party, which was further 
weakened by internal dissensions. The opposition of the 
Federalists to the War of 1812 gave the death blow to their 
already fallen party. 

Ill The Republican Party 

While the Federalists did not entirely disappear as a politi 
cal party until after the War of 1812, they lost most of their 
importance in political life after the election of Jefferson in 
1800, and the rest of this period was a period of Republican 
supremacy. The rapid growth of the West was an important 
factor in the growth of the Republican party. The new states 
carved out of the territory west of the Alleghanies repre- 
sented the rising democracy of the republic — the belief 
that one man is as good as another irrespective of his wealth 
or birth. The effect of this belief in American politics is first 
seen in the election of Jefferson, and later in the election of 
the war congress of 1811-12. Jefferson was the first Repub- 
lican president, holding that office from 1801 to 1809. He 
was followed by Madison, 1809-1817. Monroe, who was 
president from 1817 to 1825 was nominally a Republican 
president, but his administration was characterized by an 
almost total lack of party feeling, so much so that this period 
is commonly known as the " Era of good feeling." John 
Quincy Adams was the fourth of the Republican presidents, 
and it was during his administration that the party broke 
up into personal factions. 



190 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

GROWTH OF THE NATION 

I Growth in Territory and PopuLx\tion 

At the close of the Revolution the territory of the United 
States extended from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and 
from Canada to Florida. Of all this vast area of over 
800,000 square miles, less than 300,000 were occupied ; and 
of the 3,000,000 inhabitants, the great mass lived east of the 
Appalachian mountains. By the end of this period (1828) 
the area of the United States had increased — through the 
acquisition of the Louisiana territory in 1803 and of Florida 
in 1819 — to more than 2,000,000 square miles, of which 
600,000 were settled. The population had reached nearly 
12,000,000, the increase in the West being much more rapid 
than in the East. 

n Movement of Population 

1 . Causes 

From early colonial times settlers had been slowly mov- 
ing westward in search of new homes, chiefly along the 
Ohio. The depression in business affairs immediately 
after the Revolution led to a great increase of migration 
westward, and to the settling of the territory between the 
Alleghanies and the Mississippi. It was true throughout 
this period — in fact even to the present day — that when- 
ever there were hard times in the East with lack of busi- 
ness and scarcity of money, there was a rush of settlers 
westward. Land was cheap, fertile and well watered, and 
men welcomed the opportunity to build up homes and 
fortunes in a new country. The immigration of foreigners 
also aided this movement, though at that time it had not 
become a factor of great importance. 

2. Direction 

All this migration was along two definite courses which 
ran westward in parallel lines from the northern and 



Growth of the Nation 191 

southern sections of the country bordering on the Atlantic. 
A.s the settlers moved from these sections, they carried with 
them into the new territory, their customs and institutions, 
and thus the nation developed along parallel lines running 
east and west. Thus in the southern part of the western 
territory the same industrial and social conditions prevailed 
as in the southern states, and slavery became established 
with the settlement of the country. In the northern part of 
this new territory the ideas and institutions of the northern 
Atlantic states prevailed, and consequently slavery was not 
established. 

Ill Results of Westward Expansion 

1. Formation of States 

In the organization of this new territory, the Ordinance 
of 1787 was followed. The rapid settlement of the west- 
ern lands soon led to the formation of new states in ac- 
cordance with the provisions of this Ordinance. The 
first state carved out of this western country, Kentucky, 
was admitted into the Union in 1792, and others soon 
followed. In 1828 the Union contained twenty-four states 
— almost twice the original number — of which nine were 
in the Mississippi valley. Thus the influence of the West 
became an important factor in national affairs. In charac- 
ter the constitutions of these states were very democratic — 
much more so than in the East. This was due to the con- 
ditions of frontier life where every man stood on an 
equality with every other man, dependent on his own 
efforts. 

2. Internal Improvements 

The rapid growth of the West and the consequent 
increase in the volume of its commerce made it necessary 
and valuable to both the East and West to open up high- 
ways between the two sections. The matter of building 
roads, bridges, canals, and improving the rivers by the aid 



192 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

of the national government was early taken up by Congress 
and became a political issue. The first work of this kind 
undertaken by the government was the building of the 
Cumberland road between the Ohio river and the Potomac. 
Although internal improvements were constantly dis- 
cussed, nothing more was done by the national government 
during this period. The states however took up the work. 
New York completed the Erie Canal in 1825, and this canal 
has become an important factor in the nation's commerce. 
Other states also built important canals, roads and bridges. 

3. Struggle Over Slavery: The Missouri Compromise, 1820 

The westward expansion of the nation led to the first 
struggle over slavery. Slavery had existed in all the colo- 
nies, but the fact that slaves could not be used with profit 
in the North brought about the abolition of slavery in 
New England and in nearly all the middle states, and its 
prohibition in the Northwest Territory. The fact that there 
were but few slaves in the North caused a moral sen- 
timent to grow up slowly against slavery there, and this 
sentiment aided the industrial conditions in causing its 
abolition. In the South, on the other hand, slavery had 
become still more firmly entrenched in the industrial and 
social life. As has been said, the settlers of the western 
territory moved directly west from the Atlantic states, 
carrying their institutions with them. Consequently, as 
this territory was organized into states, these states were 
free or slave, according to the convictions of the settlers 
and to whether the states lay north or south of the Ohio 
river. The application of Missouri, the first state lying 
wholly west of the Mississippi, for admission into the 
Union led to a discussion of the extension of slavery into 
the Louisiana territory, which was finally settled by the 
Missouri Compromise. 

This compromise had its origin in the desire of the free 
and the slave sections of the nation each to prevent the 



Grozith of the Xatiou 193 

other from securing the larger number of representatives 
in the United States Senate. The northern states, having 
a larger population than the southern, would always have 
a majority in the House of Representatives. The southern 
states, knowing this, were determined to control as many 
votes in the Senate as the northern states, and thus be 
in a position to prevent any legislation injurious to slavery 
interests. In order to retain this control a slave state must 
be admitted into the Union with every free state. Up to 
1818 this plan had been followed carefully and of the 
twenty-two states then forming the Union, eleven were 
free and eleven were slave. To preserve this balance 
required that the territory included in the Louisiana Pur- 
chase should be half slave and half free. The North 
was determined that slavery should not be admitted into 
this new territory. When in 1818 ^Missouri applied for 
admission as a state, violent discussion arose. The House 
would not permit Missouri to enter as a slave state, and the 
Senate would not allow slavery to be prohibited. In 1820 
Maine applied for admission to the Union as a free state. 
The southern members of Congress would not consent 
to the admission of Maine unless Missouri were allowed 
to enter as a slave state. As a compromise it was finally 
decided : 

(i) Maine should be admitted as a free state, and Mis- 
souri as a slave state. 

(2) The Louisiana Purchase should be divided by the 
parallel of 36° 30' and in all territory north of the line, 
excepting Missouri, slavery should be forever pro- 
hibited. 

It was generally thought that this Compromise had 
settled the dispute regarding slavery by restricting its area, 
but because of the acquisition of new territory, and be- 
cause of the difference in the industrial and social con- 
ditions of the North and South, it could result only in post- 
poning the final conflict. 



194 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 
IV Growth of National Unity 

Just as at the time of the Revolution the danger from 
England had forced the colonies to act in unity, during this 
period the continual interference of Europe in American 
affairs, directly and indirectly, in a general way tended to 
the growth of American national unity. Especially was this 
true of the war of 1812. The resentment of English and 
French outrages united the people as nothing else had done 
and the successful conclusion of the war strengthened this 
unity of feeling. This war practically ended direct inter- 
ference of the European nations in American affairs and 
left the nation united and in a position to develop a true 
national life. The acquisition of Louisiana was nationaliz- 
ing in its effects, for in its purchase, organization and gov- 
ernment the national government was forced to assume and 
exercise powers far greater than any specifically granted by 
the Constitution. This forced the Republican party to adopt 
the nationalizing policy to which it was at first so much 
opposed, and as the Republican party was supreme from 
1801 to the end of this period, its work in advancing this 
policy was of great importance. The rapid growth of the 
West was a most important factor in the growth of national 
unity. The men who settled this new country went into 
the West under the protection and government of the nation, 
not of the state ; their state governments had to be created 
by their own efforts, and naturally were subordinate to the 
national government in every way, in their minds. There 
was no state jealousy which would tend to hinder the exer- 
cise of national authority, hence the influence of the West 
was strongly for nationality. The Supreme Court of the 
United States in a series of important decisions established 
still more firmly the supremacy of the national government, 
and in many cases specifically defined the limits of the state 
governments. Among the more important of these cases 
were: 



Institutional Life 195 

(i) McCulloch vs. Maryland. In this case the state 
of Maryland attempted to tax the United States Bank, but 
the Supreme Court held that it could not be taxed because 
it was in part a national institution. 

(2) Fletcher vs. Peck. In this case the court held that 
the state of Georgia could not revoke grants of lands even 
if they had been obtained by fraud, because it would be the 
violation of contract which the national constitution says 
shall not be impaired. 

(3) Dartmouth College Case. In this case New Hamp- 
shire attempted to modify the charter of Dartmouth Col- 
lege, but the court held that it could not be done because it 
would impair the obligation of contract. 

The chief influence working against the growth of nation- 
ality was slavery. While it was not an active factor during 
this period, yet it was surely though slowly undermining the 
unity of the nation by causing the North and South to develop 
industrially and socially along entirely different lines. Thus 
different interests sprang up in the two sections, and the con- 
ditions which caused the conflict of the following period were 
definitely shaping themselves. The attitude of the two sec- 
tions of the country, and the strength of slavery in the South, 
is shown in the ]Missouri Compromise which was the first 
struggle of the long conflict that came to predominate all 
questions and to threaten the existence of the nation. 



INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

During the period from 1789 to 1828, institutional life in the 
United States was gradually changing from colonial conditions. 
In the matter of government and social life, there was a marked 
growth toward democracy. The aristocratic forms, ceremonies 
and distinctions based on class, were gradually dying out except 
in the South. The democratic ideas that led to the election of 
Jackson in 1828, worked a great change in social conditions. This 



196 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

period also witnessed the beginning of the industrial growth and 
expansion of the nation. In religious affairs a much more liberal 
spirit gradually developed, and there was also a distinct improve- 
ment in education. 

I Industrial Conditions 

The underlying factor of the industrial development of the 
nation, especially in the South, during this and the following 
period was slavery. While its importance as an industrial 
factor was not recognized at this time, it was determining 
to a large extent the development of the nation by causing the 
development of different interests in the northern and south- 
ern sections. The invention of the cotton gin and the great 
improvement in weaving machinery which increased many 
fold the demand for raw cotton in both Europe and America, 
made slaves of more value not only in the cotton raising 
states but also in those states that raised slaves for the market. 
These conditions served to fasten slavery still more firmly 
on the South, while in the northern states where slavery did 
not exist to any extent, other interests grew up. Slavery 
caused the laborers from foreign countries to avoid the 
South and to go into the North where free labor prevailed. 
Thus the North rapidly outgrew the South in free population. 
Since by the character of its labor, the South could take 
little part in the commercial and manufacturing development 
of the nation, it soon began to fall behind the northern states 
in wealth. Thus the two sections of the nation continued 
to drift apart industrially. 

I . Manufactures 

At the time of the adoption of the Constitution, American 
manufacturing consisted chiefly of the household manufac- 
ture of articles of common use. Inventions of machinery 
and the great increase in the amount of cotton raised by 
the South led to the early establishment of cotton mills in 
New England, and this industry increased until by 1828 



Institutional Life 197 

hundreds of thousands of men and women were employed 
in the many great factories in which were invested many 
milhons of dollars. The rise of woolen mills was nearly 
as rapid though not beginning so early. The iron industry 
was developed in Pennsylvania to a considerable extent, 
and the foundation laid for its greater development in the 
following period. Jefferson's Embargo Policy and the War 
of 1812 were very beneficial to American manufactures, 
for by shutting out foreign commerce they forced the 
people to establish manufactures of various kinds, and by 
the injury done to commerce they served to turn capital 
to manufacturing instead. By 1816 the manufactures 
had become of such importance that it was deemed neces- 
sary to establish a protective tariff for their encouragement. 
By 1828 the value of manufactures in the United States 
amounted to many hundreds of millions of dollars. This 
advance had taken place almost entirely in the northern 
states, the South having done very little in the way of 
building up manufactures or commerce. 

AgriculUire 

During this period the nation was, as a whole, agricul- 
tural. Although other industries had been established in 
the northern states, the South had remained entirely agri- 
cultural. This, as has been stated, was due largely to 
slavery. At the time of the formation of the Constitution 
there had been a strong sentiment against slavery in some 
of the southern states, but this gradually died out after the 
invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793. This 
invention made the cotton crop one of immense value in the 
South. Rice, tobacco and cotton were the great southern 
staples, but Virginia and neighboring states became wheat 
producers also during this period, and raised large quan- 
tities for export. In the middle and northern states large 
amounts of food products were raised and exported, but 



198 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

commercial and manufacturing interests took much of the 
attention of the people of those sections. The western 
country was almost entirely agricultural. 

3. Commerce 

Commerce now became a very important factor in 
national development. During the Revolution the com- 
merce of the nation was almost entirely destroyed, but it 
soon sprang up again. The constant warfare of European 
nations in the first part of this period gave America a great 
opportunity, and a large foreign commerce was built up 
by the middle and northern states. Jefferson's Embargo 
policy and the war of 181 2 for a time hindered the develop- 
ment of commerce, but in general the period was one of 
great commercial prosperity and expansion. 

4. Transportation and Connmmication 

While the means of transportation and communication 
existing in 1828 seem very poor when compared with 
those of the present time, they were far in advance of those 
of the colonies. The invention and introduction of steam- 
boats was the main feature of improvement in trans- 
portation during this time, and was very important in its 
efifect on both industrial and social conditions. The steam- 
boat was one of the main factors in opening up the wes- 
tern country which exerted so much influence on the whole 
institutional life of the nation. The building of roads, 
canals, and bridges by the various states also had an 
important effect on industrial conditions, because it brought 
the sections of the country together and broadened the field 
of industrial expansion. 

II Social Conditions 

During the first part of this period the social conditions 
were much like those of Colonial times, the same aristo- 
cratic ideas in a measure prevailing. But there was a distinct 



Institutional Life ■ 199 

advance during this period, especially during the latter part, 
in democratic ideals and modes of living. This was due 
largely to the development of the West, which was very 
democratic, owing to the manner of its settlement and to the 
equality of its settlers. This growth in democracy is shown 
in many ways. Washington was inaugurated with a great 
deal of pomp and ceremony ; this was largely done away with 
by Jefferson, and still greater simplicity was introduced by 
later Presidents in accordance with the democratic ten- 
dencies of the times. At the time of the adoption of the 
Constitution the dress of the wealthier classes was very rich 
and elaborate, as during colonial times ; this too was changed 
gradually, men of all classes coming to wear more nearly 
the same style and quality of clothing. The growth in dem- 
ocracy is also shown in the extension of the franchise. While 
in 1800 only about one person in thirty-five could vote, by 
1828 about one person in ten had the privilege of the suffrage. 
This change was due to the abolishing of property and other 
qualifications, in w4iich the new western states led. These 
democratic ideas were introduced much more slowly in the 
South on account of the plantation system of living, and 
the holding of slaves, which served to keep up class dis- 
tinctions which were rapidly dying out in the commercial and 
manufacturing states. 

Ill Government 

There was little change in the institution of government 
during this period, the main lines of the development of the 
United States in this respect having been laid down during 
the preceding periods. The organization and government of 
all the newly acquired territory was based on the Ordinance 
of 1787. The formation of state governments proceeded on 
the same lines as those of the state governments formed 
during the Revolution, which in turn were based on the gov- 
ernments of the colonies. Changes in the national govern- 
ment consisted merely in the rational development of the 
principles of the Constitution. 



200 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

IV Religion 

During this period the old intolerance was broken down 
and complete religious liberty was established. At the time 
of the Revolution religious qualifications were required of 
public officers and in many cases of voters, in nearly all the 
states. These were largely done away with during the period 
immediately following the Revolution, and Church and State 
soon became completely separated in all the states. Many 
new sects came into existence, and national organizations of 
the various churches were formed. 

V Education 

While the advance in education and in the intellectual life 
of the nation is not so remarkable as that in other respects, 
the improvement over the conditions of Colonial times is 
considerable. Common schools were established throughout 
the western country as they were also in the eastern part of 
the United States. These schools were provided for by the 
sale of public lands, and by taxation. Numerous academies 
and colleges sprang up, and high schools began to be es- 
tablished in the East. Improved methods of teaching and 
study were introduced to some extent, and greater attention 
was paid to the sciences than during the colonial period. 
In the matter of the general education of the people there was 
a distinct advance, this being a natural part of the demo- 
cratic tendencies of the period. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Into what two periods does the history of the United States between 
1789 and i860 naturally divide itself? Explain fully why the first period 
may be called National Growth and European Interference. Explain fully 
why the second period may be called Westward Expansion and Slavery. 

THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE. 
Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on The Period of European Inter- 
ference, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's "Source 
Readers in American History," pp. 217-315. See "Explanatory and Sug- 
gestive," page ix.) Who made the laws of France about the time Wash- 
ington was first elected President of the United States? Compare the 
powers which the French people had in making their laws at that time 
with the power which the American people had in making their laws. 
Describe the way in which the French government and the nobles treated 
the common people. How did this treatment cause the French people to 
feel toward their government? In what way did the American Revolution 
and the part which France took in it help to cause the French Revolution? 
Describe some of the things which took place in France during this 
Revolution. In what way were these acts the natural result of the bad 
treatment which the French people had received from their government? 
How did the French Revolution lead to war between France and England? 
Explain fully why the French expected the Americans to help them in 
this war. Describe the work of Genet in the United States. Describe 
fully the attitude of the Americans toward France in this war. What 
was the attitude of Washington? Explain the Neutrality Proclamation. 
Explain fully why the principle of American Neutrality in European 
Affairs which this proclamation established is of very great importance 
in the history of the United States. How is this principle related to the 
Monroe Doctrine? 

Explain the Rule of 1756. Illustrate how it was applied to America. 
Describe the Impressment Policy of Great Britain. How did this policy 
afifect America, and how was it received by the Americans? What was 
the general attitude of the English government toward the United States 
after the American Revolution? How was the war with England averted 
at this time? What was the nature of the Jay Treaty? How was it 
received by the American people? How was it received in France? What 



202 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

was the effect of the Genet affair and the Neutrality Proclamation on 
France? Explain the X, Y, Z Affair. What effect did this treatment 
of the American commissioners have on the American government and 
the American people? Describe the preparations for vi'ar with France, and 
the few battles which took place between some of the war vessels of the 
two nations. How was war between France and the United States 
averted ? 

How did the firm stand which the Federalists took in the trouble 
with France cause the people to feel toward the Federalist party? What 
led to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws? Explain the Alien 
Laws. What was the object of these laws? To what extent were they 
enforced? Explain the Sedition Act. What was the object of this act? 
To what extent was it enforced? How were the Alien and Sedition Acts 
received by the people? What effect did their passage have on the 
Federalist party? Upon what grounds did the Republicans oppose the 
Alien and Sedition Acts? How did these laws lead to the passage of the 
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions? Who was the author of each set of 
these resolutions? Explain carefully the principles which these resolu- 
tions stated. In what respect did the Kentucky and the Virginia Resolu- 
tions differ? What would have been the effect on the national government 
if the principles stated in the resolutions had been carried out? How 
were the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions received by the legislatures 
of the other states? Why are these resolutions important? 

Why did the United States and especially the people in the western 
part desire to have control of the Mississippi? When Spain had control 
of it, what rights did she grant the United States, and why were these 
rights of great value to the western people? Why did the United States 
object to Spain ceding Louisiana to France? When it became known 
that France had secured this territory, what conditions made Jefferson 
anxious to buy the territory at the mouth of the Mississippi with as little 
delay as possible? What conditions in Europe made Napoleon willing 
to sell the entire Louisiana Territory? Why did he sell it to the United 
States ? 

When did Napoleon secure control of the French government and 
bring the French Revolution to an end? Describe briefly the relation 
of France to the rest of Europe from 1803 to 1815. Why did France 
and England each try to destroy the commerce of the other? Explain 
carefully the British "Orders in Council" and the French "Decrees." 
When is a port actually blockaded? Explain carefully how the Orders 
in Council and Decrees injured American commerce. Describe the way 
in which the British at this time were enforcing the so-called "Right 
of Search." What do you think the United States should have done 
under these circumstances ? What was Jefferson's attitude toward the 
army and navy? What was his policy toward England and France? 



Questions and Topics 1103 

Describe the Embargo Act. Describe the Enforcement Act. What was 
the effect of the Embargo Act on England and France? What was its 
effect on the United States ? In what way did the Non-Importation Act 
differ from the Embargo Act? 

Discuss or review the causes and conditions which led to the War of 
1812. Explain carefully in what important respects the Congress which 
met in December, 181 1, differed from those which immediately preceded 
it. Why would the nature of the new Congress naturally lead to war? 
Why was war declared against England instead of against France? 
Describe the condition of the American army at the beginning of the 
war. Describe the condition of the navy at this time. How would the 
poor condition of the army and navy naturally affect the success of tne 
Americans in the war? What other conditions at the beginning of the 
war tended to prevent American success? Describe the war on land 
during the year 1812. Describe the war on land during the year 1813. 
Describe the war on land during the year 1814. Describe the battle of 
New Orleans. Explain why this battle would not have been fought 
if the War of 1812 had taken place since 1850. Describe carefully the 
war on sea. State the terms of the treaty of peace. Describe carefully 
some of the more important results of the war. 

Why were the people of New England opposed to Jefferson's embargo 
and non-importation policy and to the War of 1812? Discuss the causes 
of the Hartford convention. What was the object of holding this con- 
vention? What did this convention do? Compare the work of this 
convention with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. 

Why did the United States wish to buy Florida? What caused Spain 
to become willing to sell it? What were the terms of the purchase? 

Describe the conditions which led to the formation of the Holy 
Alliance. What was the object of this alliance? Why did Great Britain 
and the United States object to its proposal to help Spain recover the 
Spanish-American colonies? Describe the claim of Russia on the Pacific 
coast at this time. Describe the attitude of Secretary Adams on this 
question. Explain carefully all the circumstances and conditions that 
caused Monroe to insert in his message to Congress the statement known 
as the Monroe Doctrine. Explain the Monroe Doctrine and show how 
it is related to the principle of American Neutrality in European Affairs. 
Explain carefully why the period of European Interference ends with the 
Monroe Doctrine. 

Questions for Compositions and Examin.a.tions 

Discuss the reason for dividing the history of the United States 
between 1789 and i860 into the periods of National Growth and European 
Interference, and W^estward Expansion and Slavery. Discuss the origin 
of the principle of American Neutrality in European Affairs, and explain 



204 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

why this principle has been very important in the history of the United 
States. Discuss the conditions leading to the Jay Treaty and the results 
of the treaty. Discuss the breach with France. Discuss the Alien and 
Sedition Acts and the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Discuss the 
conditions leading to the purchase of Louisiana. Discuss the causes of 
the War of 1812, including Orders in Council, Decrees, and embargo 
policy of Jefferson. Discuss the war on land. Discuss the war on sea. 
Discuss the results of the war. Discuss the Hartford convention. Discuss 
the Monroe Doctrine, including its causes and effects. 

FINANCIAL LEGISLATION : THE TARIFF 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain fully the financial condition of the national government at 
the time Washington became President. What was the object of the 
first tariff? Explain fully each part of Hamilton's financial plan. How 
was his plan received by Congress? What effect did the adoption of 
Hamilton's financial measures have on the credit of the United States? 
Explain carefully how these measures strengthened the national govern- 
ment. In what condition were the financial affairs of the national govern- 
ment at the time Jefferson became President? How did Jefferson propose 
to reduce taxation and the national debt? To what extent were he and 
Gallatin successful in doing this? Explain how their measures affected 
the army and navy. Discuss the rise of state banks. What prevented 
the renewal of the charter of the United States Bank in 181 1? What 
caused its renewal in 1816? 

What is meant by a tariff as used in connection with national legis- 
lation? Explain carefully what is meant by a tariff for revenue only. 
Explain carefully what is meant by a tariff for revenue and for the pro- 
tection of home industries also. Discuss the value of the principle of 
protection as used in connection with the tariff. What was the object 
of the first tariff law that Congress passed? What was the main object 
of all the tariff laws that were passed by Congress before 18 16? Explain 
carefully how the war of 1812 led to the passage of the protective tariff 
law of 1816. Discuss the growth of the idea of protection. Discuss the 
growth of the principle of the protective tariff. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the object, nature, and result of Hamilton's financial plan. 
Discuss the object, nature, and result of Jefferson and Gallatin's financial 
policy. Discuss the history of the United States Bank during this period, 
including the rise of state banks and their effect on the United States 
Bank. Give a careful discussion of the history of the tariff during this 
period. 



Questions and Topics 205 

POLITICAL PARTIES 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain carefully what caused the rise of political parties and why 
they continue to exist. What is the value of political parties? What 
was the first great question that caused the people of the United States 
to divide themselves into political parties? Explain carefully the mean- 
ing of what is called the elastic clause of the Constitution. Explain care- 
fully what is meant by the "loose interpretation of the Constitution." 
Explain carefully what is meant by the "strict interpretation of the Con- 
stitution." State which of these two interpretations tends to create a 
strong national government, and give reasons for your answer. 

Name some of the more important leaders of the Federalist party. 
Name the Federalist Presidents and state when each was President. Ex- 
plain carefully the main principles and ideas of this party. Describe briefly 
the work of the Federalist party. Explain how the ideas of this party were 
out of harmony with the spirit of the times. Discuss the conditions and the 
things that caused the Federalist party to lose control of the government, 
and finally to cease to exist. 

Name some of the more important leaders of the Republican party. 
Name the Republican Presidents, and state when each was President. 
Explain carefully the main principles and ideas of this party. Discuss the 
decline and fall of the Republican party. The promises on which the 
Republican party secured control of the government involved what two 
general principles? Explain in what way this party carried out one of 
these principles? Explain carefully the conditions and circumstances that 
caused it not to carry out the other promise to any extent whatever. Ex- 
plain why the party in power usually gives a loose interpretation to the 
Constitution, and why the party out of power usually opposes this. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the origin and value of political parties in the L^nited States. 
Discuss the principles, growth, and decline of the Federalist party. Discuss 
likewise the principles, growth, and decline of the Republican party. 

GROWTH OF THE NATION 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the Growth of the Nation, each 
pupil should read the third number of Hart's "Source Readers in Ameri- 
can History," pp. 143-215. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) 
Compare the area of the United States at the close of the Revolution 
with its area at the end of the period of National Growth and European 



206 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

Interference. Compare the settled area of the nation at these different 
times, showing the direction in which the settled area was growing. Com- 
pare the population of the United States at the close of the Revolution 
with the population in 1828. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating 
the growth of the total and settled areas of the United States during this 
period.) Describe carefully the condition that caused so many people to 
settle during this period in the country between the Mississippi and the 
Appalachian Mountains. What conditions have always caused a rush of 
settlers westward? Explain carefully what is meant by the statement 
that the population moved westward in parallel lines from the northern 
and southern Atlantic coast states. Explain carefully how this caused 
industrial and social conditions to differ in the northern and southern 
sections of the western country. 

Discuss the formation of new states in the western territory. Why 
were the constitutions of these western states more democratic than those 
of the eastern states? What is meant by internal improvements as used 
in national affairs? How did the growth of the West make the matter of 
internal improvements a question of national importance? Describe care- 
fully the internal improvements made during this period by the national 
and state governments. Explain carefully how the Ordinance of 1787 
affected slavery in the western territory. How was the question of slavery 
settled in that part of the western territory south of the Ohio and east of 
the Mississippi? Why did the application of Missouri for admission to 
the Union cause a struggle over slavery? What had caused the gradual 
abolition of slavery in the North? What had caused slavery to become 
more firmly established in the South? How did this difference between 
the North and the South affect the question of the extension of slavery 
into the Louisiana Territory? Explain carefully all the conditions and 
circumstances that led to the Missouri Compromise. Explain the terms 
of this compromise. How did this compromise affect the question of 
slavery? 

How did the interference with American affairs by Europe aid the 
growth of American national unity? What was the effect of the War of 
1812 on national life? How did the purchase of Louisiana and Florida aid 
the growth of national unity? Explain carefully how the rapid develop- 
ment of the West aided this growth. Explain carefully how some of the 
Supreme Court decisions strengthened the national government. Explain 
carefully how slavery was gradually causing the North and the South to 
drift farther and farther apart. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the growth of the United States in territory and population 
during this period. Discuss the causes of the rapid growth of the West. 
How were industrial and social conditions in the West directly related to 



Questions and Topics 207 

those in the East? Discuss the formation of new states in the western 
territory. How was the question of slavery settled in the western territory 
east of the Mississippi? Discuss the causes, terms, and results of the 
Missouri Compromise. Discuss the growth of national unity during this 
period. 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 
Questions for Class Recitations. 

What is meant by the statement that during the period from the close 
of the Revolution to 1828 institutional life in the United States was 
gradually changing from colonial conditions? What was the nature of 
the change in industrial conditions? What was the nature of 
the change in the institutions of social life and government? What was 
the nature of the change in the institutions of religion and education? 
(Before continuing farther with this work the pupil should review care- 
fully the subject of "Institutional Life in the Colonies." This review 
is very important and should not be omitted.) 

Describe briefly the condition of manufactures in the colonies. Ex- 
plain carefully how the Embargo Acts and the War of 1812 caused the 
growth of American manufactures. In what way was the invention of 
machinery related to the increase in the manufacture of cotton and 
woolen goods? What relation had the cotton gin to this increase? De- 
scribe briefly the growth of the manufacturing industry in the United 
States up to about 1828. In what part of the nation did this growth take 
place? Why did manufactures not develop in the West during this 
period? Explain carefully why manufactures were not developed in the 
South. Discuss carefully the causes of the growth of the cotton industry. 
What were some of the other important farm products of the South? 
Discuss the condition of agriculture in the West and in the northern 
Atlantic states. 

Explain how the growth in manufacturing and agriculture affected 
the commerce of the nation. Explain carefully how the growth of the 
West brought about conditions that made better means of transporta- 
tion and communication very desirable. Describe carefully the effect 
that the invention of the steamboat had on transportation. Describe 
some other important improvements that were made in the means of 
transportation during this period. What were some of the more impor- 
tant inventions and discoveries made up to 1828? How do they compare 
with those that have been made since? 

(In connection with the questions on Social Conditions, each pupil 
should read the third number of Hart's ''Source Readers in American 
History," pp. 1-142.) Discuss the changes which took place in the man- 
ners and customs of the people during the period of National Growth 



208 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

and European Interference. Describe the classes which existed in south- 
ern society during this time. Explain carefully why there had been 
scarcely any changes in southern society since the Revolution. Explain 
how the growth of democratic ideas affected class distinctions in the 
North. Discuss the effect of the West on class distinctions in the North. 
Discuss the effect of the West on class distinctions in the East. Explain 
the relation of Jackson's election to the destruction of class distinctions. 
Explain carefully the changes which took place in the national govern- 
ment during this period. What kind of state governments did the west- 
ern states have? How did the state governments of the East and West 
differ as to nature? What caused the state governments during thia 
period to become more democratic? What changes in religious condi- 
tions occurred during this period? (In connection with the questions 
on Education, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's "Source 
Readers in American History," pp. 317-371.) What was the condition 
of education in the United States from the close of the Revolution to 
about 1810? What was the cause of this? In what way was and is 
the public land directly related to the common school system? Describe 
the improvement that took place in the schools during the latter part 
of this period. Who were some of the more important American writers 
of this period? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the nature of the institutional changes that took place during 
this period. Discuss the growth and development of manufactures. Dis- 
cuss the growth of agriculture. Discuss the growth of commerce, and 
the improvement in the means of transportation and communication. 
Discuss the changes in social conditions. Discuss the changes in gov- 
ernment. Discuss the condition of education. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

A POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Meaning of Jackson's Election 

D. 443-446; Mc. 301; Ma. 268-273; T. 249-251; M. 
240-241 

II Political Methods 

1. The Spoils System 

D. 446-447 ; Mc. 294-295 ; Ma. 273-274 ; G. 266 ; 
T. 251-252; M. 241-242 

2. Party Organisations, the Nominating Convention, 

and Campaigns 
D. 447-450; Mc. 306, 315-316; Ma. 274; T. 275- 
276; M. 258-259 

III Political Parties 

1. The Democratic Party 

D. 451-452; Mc. 311, 312, 346, 352-353- 360-361 ; 
Ma. 268-271 ; T. 286, 306, 316, 322 

2. The Whig Party 

D- 452-453 ; Mc. 307, 312, 316, 334-335» 352; Ma. 
268-271 ; T. 248, 306 

3. The Republican Party 

D. 453-454; Mc. 354-355. 363; Ma. 325-326; G. 
305-306; T. 315-316, 322 

B FINANCIAL LEGISLATION : THE TARIFF 
I The Tariff 

1. TJie Tariff of 1828; Nullification and Secession 

D- 454-457 ; Mc. 303-305 ; Ma. 295-297 ; G. 267- 
271 ; T. 247-248, 254-256 ; M. 245-249 

2. The Compromise Tariff of 1833 and the Walker 

Tariff of 1846 
D. 457-458; Mc. 305; Ma. 299; T. 256; M. 249 



210 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

II Destruction of the National Bank 

D. 458-460; Mc. 305-308; Ma. 274-275; G. 271-272; 
T. 253-254; M. 245 

III The Panic of 1837 

1. Era of Speculation 

D. 460-461; Mc. 308-309; Ma. 275-276; T. 272; 
M. 253-254 

2. The Specie Circular 

D. 461 ; Mc. 309; G. 2y6-2'/j; T. 272 

3. Distribution of the Surplus 

D. 461-462; Mc. 309-310; T. 270-271 

4. The Crisis 

D. 462; Mc. 3 10-3 1 1 ; G. 277; T. 272; M. 253 

IV The Independent or Sub-Treasury System 

D. 463; Mc. 311-312; Ma. 276-277; G. 278-279; T. 
273-274, 296; M. 254-255 

C GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND 
POPULATION 

I The Oregon Territory 

D. 464-467; Ma. 238-240, 280, 283, 304-305 

II Annexation of Texas, 1845 

D. 467-469; Mc. 320-322; Ma. 303-306; G. 290; T. 
284-287; M. 262 

III The Mexican War, 1846-1848 

Ma. 306-314 

1. Causes 

D. 469-470; ]\Ic. 326; G. 290-291; T. 289-290; 
M. 265-266 

2. Campaigns 

D. 470-472; Mc. 327-328; G. 291-292; T. 290- 
293 ; M. 266-268 



The Slavery Question 211 

3. Results 

D. 472-474; Mc. 333-334; G. 292-293; T. 293; 
M. 269 

IV The Oregon Boundary, 1846 

Mc. 322-326; G. 284-286; T. 294-296; M. 264-265 

D THE SLAVERY QUESTION 
I The Abolition Movement 

1. Groivth of Sentiment Against Slavery 

D. 475-476; Mc. 334-336, 343, 352, 357; Ma. 
299; G. 286-287; T. 270, 303, 308; M. 275-276, 
283 

2. Rise of Abolitionists 

D. 476-477; Mc. 313; Ma. 299-300; T. 267-268 

3. Anti-Abolition Sentiment 

D. 477-478; Mc. 313-314; Ma. 301; G. 287; 
T. 269 

4. The Gag Resolutions 

D. 478-479; Mc. 314-315; Ma. 301-302; G. 287- 
289 ; T. 269 

TI Expansion of Slave Territory: The Compromise 
OF 1850 
D. 479-482; Mc. 337-343-; Ma. 310-321; G. 294-299; 
T. 297-298, 301-303; M. 269-270, 2/2-2y4 

III The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854 

D. 482-484; Mc. 347; Ma. 321; G. 303-305; T. 309; 
M. 278-279 

IV The Struggle for Kansas, 1854-1861 

D. 484; Mc. 347-352, 357-358; Ma. 322-325; T. 313- 
314; M. 279-280 

V The Dred Scott Decision, 1857 

D. 484-486; Mc. 355-356; Ma. 326; G. 299-301, 310- 
313; T. 316-318; M. 279-280 



212 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

VI The Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858 

D. 486-488; Mc. 358-359; Ma. 327-329 

VII The Election of Lincoln, i860; Secession, 1860-1861 

D. 488-490; Mc. 363, 378-382; Ma. 329-337; T. 323- 
328; M. 286-290 

E INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

I Industrial Conditions 

D. 491-492; Mc. 285-291, 365-376; H. IV. 41-44; G. 
306-310; T. 258-264, 281-282, 304-308, 310-312; M. 
249-251, 257, 290-292 

1. Means of Transportation and Communication: 

Other Inventions 
D. 492-500; Mc. 285-291, 368-370, 372, 374-375; 
Ma. 285-294 ; G. 272-275, 282-284 ; T. 259-264, 
281, 308; M. 237-238, 249-250, 257 

2. Agriculture 

D. 500; Ma. 286-288; T. 310 

3. Manufactures and Mining 

D. 500-501 ; Mc. 289, 337-338, 370-374 ; Ma. 288- 
290; T. 259, 263-264, 304, 320; M. 277, 249, 
270-272, 284-285 

4. Commerce and Cities 

D. 501-504; Mc 374; T. 304 

II Social Conditions 

D. 504-506; H. IV. 1-74; Mc 375; T. 265-267; M. 
239-240 

III Government 

D. 506-509 

IV Religion 

D. 509; Mc 291-292; Ma. 283-284; T. 282-284; M. 

255-257 

V Education 

D. 509-511 ; Ma. 284-285; T. 265-266; M. 251-252 



WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

As has already been stated the characteristics of this period were 
the westward growth of the nation in population, wealth and ter- 
ritory, and the struggle over the extension of slavery into this 
western territory. During the preceding period the nation had 
thrown off its colonial traditions and had become independent of 
Europe in fact as well as in name. The nation had rid itself of 
European interference and the great question of slavery and 
other important domestic questions which had been gradually 
shaping themselves, now came to the front, and the life of the 
nation centered around them during this entire period. 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Meaning of Jackson's Election 

The election of Jackson marks the beginning of a new 
epoch in the history of the United States. It marks the ad- 
vance of democracy far beyond that of the time of Jefferson. 
To a considerable extent this was due to the development 
of the West. The new western states represented the rising 
democracy — the belief that one man is as good as another, 
irrespective of his wealth or birth. All of the Presidents 
before Jackson, however, belonged to the wealthy, cultured, 
and aristocratic class. Jackson was one of the common 
people. His life had been an almost continuous struggle 
with poverty and adverse circumstances. He was blunt in 
manner and speech, headstrong and independent. He typi- 
fied the rough frontier life of the western states. His elec- 
tion marks the complete triumph of democracy in the United 
States. 

II Political Methods 

I. The Spoils System 

The Spoils System consists in the giving of as many 
offices as possible to those who have helped elect success- 



214 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

ful candidates. Almost every officer up to the President 
of the United States has the power of appointing men 
and women to office. If the candidate elected be a Demo- 
crat he usually appoints Democrats to office ; if he be a 
Republican he usually appoints Republicans. It does not 
matter how faithfully an officer may have performed his 
duties, his position is usually given to some member of the 
successful party, and often the new officer is less com- 
petent than the one whose place he fills. As a result of 
this condition of affairs, public business frequently suffers 
serious injury. 

Jackson was responsible for the introduction of the 
"Spoils System" into the politics of the United States. 
He claimed that rotation in office was democratic and a 
good thing ; that to the victor belonged the spoils of office 
— that the successful candidate might fill the offices under 
his control with personal followers. During the first nine 
months of his administration, Jackson removed more than 
one thousand men from office, whereas all of the preceding 
Presidents together had removed less than one hundred, 
and then only for good cause, and not on account of their 
political connections. Since Jackson's administration the 
officers of both parties have appointed men and women 
to office because of their political influence. During the last 
twenty-five years the evil effects of this policy have been 
greatly lessened by the enaction of national legislation 
known as the Civil Service Laws. These laws compel 
the President of the United States to select certain officials 
by means of examination, and the officers thus selected 
cannot be removed except for just cause. 

2. Party Organizations, The Nominating Convention, and 
Campaigns 

Strong party organizations or "machines" had already 
been built up in many of the cities, and during Jackson's 
administration the organization of national parties as they 



Political Methods and Political Parties 215 

exist at the present time first came into existence. It was 
at this time also that party platforms first came into use. 

Up to Jackson's second term the candidates for presi- 
dent and vice-president of the United States had always 
been nominated by a caucus of party leaders in Congress 
or by state legislatures. The growth of democratic ideas 
led the people to demand a more direct control of such 
nominations, and as a result the candidates for the presi- 
dency and vice-presidency in the campaign of 1832 were 
nominated by national party conventions composed of 
delegates elected by the people of the various states. 

Up to the beginning of this period comparatively little 
interest was taken in presidential elections by the people 
at large. The presidential electors were not nominated 
by, nor responsible to, any political party, and therefore 
the people had little partisan interest in their election. 
Under these circumstances the electors exercised a more 
or less independent choice. The growth of democracy, 
however, changed this. After the candidates for presi- 
dent and vice-president came to be nominated by national 
party conventions, and the presidential electors in the 
various states came to be nominated by state party con- 
ventions, thus being practically pledged to vote for their 
party nominees, it became necessary to introduce new and 
active campaign methods in order to rouse the interest of 
the people and to win popular support for the candidates. 
Stump-speaking, torch-light processions, and spectacular 
displays of various kinds, such as would rouse enthusiasm 
among the people, were a part of this new order of things. 
This method of conducting a campaign has been continued 
to the present time, and is used in elections for public 
officers of all kinds. 

Ill Political Parties 

During Jackson's administration parties became thoroughly 
re-organized. Jackson's followers were called Democrats 
and those opposed to his policy, under the leadership of Clay 



216 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

and Webster formed the National Republican party, later 
calling themselves Whigs. 

1. TJie Democratic Party 

The Democratic party as organized in Jackson's time 
has never been broken up, although the leaders and issues 
have changed, and it has been and is at the present time a 
powerful party. The Democratic presidents during this 
period were Jackson, 1829-1837; Van Buren, 1837-1841 ; 
Polk, 1845-1849; Pierce, 1853-1857; and Buchanan, 1857- 
1861. The first issue upon which the Democratic party 
took a stand was the National Bank which it succeeded in 
destroying. Later in this period slavery became the pre- 
dominant issue, and the Democrats as a party were pro- 
slavery, though in the campaign of i860 the party split 
on this issue. The most important work of the Demo- 
cratic party during this period was the establishment of 
the Independent Treasury System, the Annexation of 
Texas, the inauguration and management of the war with 
Mexico, the reduction of the tariff in 1846 to an almost 
free-trade basis, and the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska 
Act in 1854. 

2. The Whig Party 

The general principles on which the Whig party was 
formed under the leadership of Clay and Webster w'ere 
broad construction of the Constitution, internal improve- 
ments by the aid of the National government and a pro- 
tective tariff. The Whig party was the one great rival of 
the Democratic party between 1834 and 1852, and twice 
succeeded in gaining control of the National government — 
in the Harrison-Tyler administration, 1 841-1845, and in 
the Taylor-Fillmore administration, 1849-1853. This 
party did not succeed in putting into effect any of its most 
important principles. While the Compromise of 1850 was 



Financial Legislation 217 

a Whig measure, it was an unfortunate measure for the 
party as it aHeaated many in the North where a large part 
of the Whigs' strength lay. The Whigs tried to avoid 
taking a definite stand on the slavery question and it was 
this attitude that caused their downfall early in the fifties. 

3. The Republican Party 

The development of the slavery issue caused changes 
in the Democratic party, the breaking up of the Whig 
party and the rise of several minor parties in the latter 
part of this period. The various elements of all these 
parties that were opposed to the extension of slavery united 
to form a new party which took the name Republican. 
This party rapidly gained strength in the North, and in 
i860 under the leadership of Lincoln first carried the 
National election. 



FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

I. Tlie Tariff of 1828; Nullification and Secession 

Just before the presidential election of 1828, Congress 
enacted a tariff law which, because of its high and absurd 
duties, is known as the "Tariff of Abominations." The 
tariff was bitterly denounced in the southern states. The 
North had developed large manufacturing interests which, 
it was claimed, needed a protective tariff for encourage- 
ment. The South had remained entirely agricultural, and 
the southerners claimed that a high tariff was of no ad- 
vantage to them, but rather a disadvantage as it tended to 
raise the price of those things which they had to buy, and 
did not raise the price of those things which they sold. 
Protests were made by the legislatures of several of the 
southern states. Calhoun, speaking for the South, drew 
up an "Exposition" setting forth the doctrine that the 
nation was a mere compact of sovereign states ; that a state 



2i8 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

could nullify a law of Congress which it judged to be 
oppressive and unconstitutional ; anc'i that a state had the 
constitutional right to withdraw from the Union. The 
legislature of South Carolina, taking this view of the ques- 
tion, passed resolutions nullifying the tariff laws. Jack- 
son, however, threatened to hang as traitors all who forci- 
bly resisted the collection of tariff duties. His firm stand, 
together with a modification in the tariff, checked the seces- 
sion movement. 

2. The Compromise Tariff of 18^3 and the Walker Tariff 
of 1846 

The strong opposition of the South to the "Tariff of 
Abominations" led to its modification in 1832 and in the 
following year to the passage of a Compromise tariff law 
which provided for the gradual reduction of tariff duties 
during a period of ten years until the low rates imposed 
by the tariff of 1816 should be reached. 

The limit provided by the Compromise Tariff was 
reached in 1843. By that time the idea of free trade had 
gained strength and this brought about the passage of a 
new tariff law in 1846 which made still further reduction 
in the tariff rates, and changed the method of assessing 
duties. 

II Destruction of the National Bank 

The National Bank, chartered first in 1791 and re-charter- 
ed in 1816 was the repository of government funds and 
agent for the government in the management of its financial 
affairs. The fact that this bank was under the general super- 
vision of the national government gave it a certain stability, 
and the existence of such a bank tended to keep the financial 
affairs of the nation on a solid basis. Jackson, however, 
was strongly opposed to this bank, claiming that it had be- 
come a political machine and was an "un-American mon- 



Financial Legislation 219 

opoly." Four years before its charter expired he accom- 
plished its destr^uction by securing the withdrawal of all the 
national funds from the bank. These funds he had placed in 
state banks. Through his influence Congress refused in 
1836 to renew the bank's charter. 

Ill The Panic of 1837 

1. Era of Speculation 

The distribution of the government deposits among 
state banks brought about the creation of a large number 
of state banks which proceeded to issue paper money to an 
amount far in excess of the gold and silver which they kept 
on hand for the purpose of redemption. A great deal of 
speculation was carried on at this time, owing to the open- 
ing up of the western country and to the advance in in- 
dustrial conditions. The great amount of paper money 
issued increased this speculation by making it easy for the 
people to borrow money. 

2. T/ie Specie Circular 

A large part of the money paid for government land was 
the paper currency of the state banks, and a large part of 
the national taxes was also paid in the same money. As 
the state banks had issued a great deal more currency than 
they had gold and silver to redeem, the people who held 
this paper money could not exchange all of it or nearly all 
of it for gold and silver. This caused the people to look 
upon paper money with suspicion, and as a result a dollar 
of it became of less value than a dollar of gold or silver. 
Jackson saw that the government could not continue to 
accept this paper money for the payment of taxes, because 
it would result in a loss to the government as it was of 
less value than gold or silver. He therefore issued an 
order that all United States taxes must be paid in gold or 
silver, and that the payments for public land must be made 



220 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

in the same money. This order of Jackson's is known as 
the Specie Circular because it provid|?d that all payments 
made to the government by its citizens must be made in 
specie — that is, in gold or silver. This circular of Jack- 
son's caused the people to become still more suspicious of 
the paper money issued by the state banks, and caused this 
money to become of still less value. 

3. Distribution of the Surplus 

By the middle of 1836 all the national debt had been 
paid and a surplus of over $40,000,000 had accumulated 
and had been placed in the state banks. Congress passed 
a bill providing for the distribution of this surplus by in- 
stallments among the various states as loans. This dis- 
tribution made necessary the removal of the government 
deposits from many of the state banks, thus greatly re- 
ducing their supply of hard money. This, together with 
the Specie Circular, caused paper money to become almost 
worthless. 

4. The Crisis 

The Specie Circular caused men to take their paper 
money to the banks at once and ask for gold and silver in 
return. But the banks had not the gold and silver with 
which to redeem it, for, as has been stated, many of them 
had issued a far larger quantity of paper money than they 
could redeem even with the government funds which they 
had on deposit, and the sudden removal of these government 
deposits made their condition still worse. As a result they 
were compelled to close their doors. Paper money, being 
thus discredited, declined rapidly in value; specie pay- 
ments were everywhere suspended ; hundreds of business 
firms failed ; thousands of men and women lost everything 
they had possessed ; factories were forced to suspend opera- 
tion ; and thus financial panic swept over the nation. 



Growth of the Nation in Territory and Population 221 

IV The Independent or Sub-Treasury System 

President Vai,] Biiren, in order to protect the national gov- 
ernment, induced Congress to pass what is known as the 
Independent Treasury Act. By the terms of this act the 
United States was enabled to erect in the various states such 
government buildings as should be required in wdiich to de- 
posit the public money of the nation. This system, com- 
monly known as the Sub-Treasury System, still exists and 
has proven very satisfactory. 



GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND 
POPULATION 

I The Oregon Territory 

The territory on the Pacific Coast between the forty-second 
parallel and the parallel of 54° 40' was called Oregon, and 
was claimed by both England and the United States. Both 
nations sent settlers into this territory and held it jointly. 
The large immigration of Americans into Oregon made the 
United States anxious to settle the northern boundary defin- 
itely and to acquire as much of this territory as possible. In 
order to make the North willing to admit Texas into the 
Union, the Democrats took up the acquisition of this entire 
territory, and made it, together with the annexation of Texas, 
the issue in the election of 1844. According to their promise, 
after the annexation of Texas, the Oregon matter was taken 
up and the present bovmdary line was agreed upon with 
England. 

II Annexation of Texas, 1845 

By the treaty of 1819 the United States ceded to Spain its 
claim to Texas, and when Mexico became independent of 
Spain two years later, Texas was included in the new Re- 
public of Mexico. The Mexican government was very lib- 



222 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

eral in granting tracts of land to settlers in this territory, 
and Americans in great numbers — especially from the South 
— took advantage of this policy and settled in Texas. During 
Jackson's administration offers were made to [Mexico for the 
purchase of Texas but were refused. Meanwhile coloniza- 
tion went on steadily with the definite purpose on the part of 
the southern leaders of the ultimate annexation of Texas to 
the United States in order to secure a valuable area for the 
expansion of slavery. When the American settlers became 
strong enough they rebelled against Mexico and in a few 
battles defeated the Mexican army. They then, in 1836, 
established the Republic of Texas, though Mexico did not 
recognize its independence. The next step — annexation — 
was strongly opposed by the northern states because of 
slavery which existed and would surely expand there. How- 
ever, in 1845 Texas was admitted to the Union, and thus the 
slave area was greatly enlarged. The western boundary 
of this new territory was undecided, and the United State's 
sent troops to enforce its claims, thus virtually forcing war 
upon Mexico. 



Ill The Mexican War, 1846-1848 

1. Causes 

The causes of this war were the desire on the part of 
the South for more slave territory which led to the annexa- 
tion of Texas, and the occupation by United States troops 
of territory on the Rio Grande claimed by Mexico. 

2. Campaigns 

This war was a series of successes for the American 
army. There were but two campaigns — one under Taylor 
on the Rio Grande, and another under Scott, who cap- 
tured Santa Cruz and then marched upon and captured 
the City of Mexico. 



The Slavery Question 223 

3. Results 

The territori;!^! result of this war was the acquisition by 
the United States of the territory including California, 
Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico and part of Colo- 
rado. The United States paid Mexico $18,000,000 for this 
territory. 

The war re-opened and extended the slavery question, 
and its political results, therefore, were of the utmost im- 
portance. Representative Wilmot of Pennsylvania pro- 
posed an amendment known as the " Wilmot Proviso " to 
a bill pending in Congress. This proviso represented the 
position of the North regarding slavery in the territory 
secured from Mexico, and declared that slavery should not 
exist in any of this territory. It failed to pass Congress, 
but its discussion throughout the country tended to create 
a still stronger feeling between the North and the South 
on the slavery question. 

THE SLAVERY QUESTION 

I The Abolition Movement 

I. Grozuth of Sentiment Against Slavery 

Industrial conditions in the North led to the gradual 
abolition of slavery. Still more slowly a moral sentiment 
against it had grown up, and by the close of the War of 
1812 the two interests — industrial and moral — had brought 
about abolition of slavery in all the New England and mid- 
dle states save Delaware, and the prohibition of slavery 
in the Northwest Territory. In the South, on the other 
hand, slavery had become still more firmly entrenched in 
the industrial and social life. The growth of the strength 
of slavery in the South was shown plainly in the Missouri 
Compromise. For fourteen years after this Compromise 
there was a lull in the agitation on the question of slavery, 
but the abolitionists then brought it forcibly to public at- 
tention. 



224 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

2. Rise of Abolitionists 

The number of people actually f pposed to slavery on 
moral grounds was very small up to 183 1. At that time an 
abolition paper called "The Liberator" was started by. 
William Lloyd Garrison, and abolition societies were form- 
ed throughout the North. The Abolitionists advocated the 
immediate freeing of the slaves, and circvilated pamphlets, 
papers and magazines throughout the United States, setting 
forth their doctrines. Although the Abolitionists were very 
active, the number of people in the North who wished to 
interfere with slavery in the Southern states, increased very 
slowly, and was not large before the beginning of the 
Civil War. 

3. Anti-Abolition Sentiment 

The slave holders were enraged by the activity of the 
Abolitionists, and were driven into defending slavery on 
both moral and constitutional grounds. They insisted that 
the Abolitionists encouraged slave insurrection, and that 
they should be suppressed by force. In the North also the 
feeling against the Abolitionists was strong. Their meet- 
ings were broken up by mobs ; their printing presses were 
destroyed ; their leaders were threatened with death, this 
being actually inflicted in one case. As the Abolitionists 
did not cease their work, but continued even more actively, 
much of their anti-slavery literature was taken from the 
mail by mobs, and burned. A bill was even introduced 
into Congress, with the full approval of President Jack- 
son, to prohibit the sending of such "incendiary publica- 
tions" through the mail. Though this bill failed of passage 
after warm debate, it showed the strength of the feeling 
that prompted it. 

4. The Gag Resolutions 

Anti-slavery agitators sent in large numbers of petitions 
to Congress concerning slavery. At first these petitions 
were received but not granted. In 1836, however, the 



The Slavery Question 225 

southerners secured in the House of Representatives the 
passage of a resohition that all petitions relating in any 
way to slavery should not be received. This was fittingly 
called the "Gag Resolution." John Quincy Adams, then 
an old man, and a member of the House of Representatives, 
labored faithfully against this violation of the right of pe- 
tition, but the resolution passed after long and angry de- 
bates, and remained in force about eight years. This 
refusal on the part of the House of Representatives to 
receive petitions from the people was a violation of the 
Constitution of the United States. It was the violation of 
a right held especially dear by English-speaking people, 
because it was one of those rights which had cost them 
centuries of bloodshed and struggle to secure. The great 
mass of the northern people had little use for the Aboli- 
tionists, but they denounced severely the attempt to inter- 
fere with the right of petition. This action therefore tended 
to create a strong feeling in the North against the attitude 
of the South on the slavery question, and the action of the 
few Abolitionists united the South in strong opposition 
to the North. 

TI Expansion of Slave Territory: The Compromise of 
1850 

The addition of the vast territory secured from Mexico 
to the United States opened up a great area for the expansion 
of slavery, and the rapid settling of this newly acquired terri- 
tory brought the whole question of slavery forcibly before the 
people. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 led to 
the rapid settlement of that territory and in 1849 the inhabi- 
tants of California formed a constitution and applied for ad- 
mission as a free state. During the discussion that followed, 
the feeling became so bitter in the North and in the South 
that threats of disunion were openly made in both sections. 
Demands were made by both the North and the South. The 
South demanded the right to take slaverv into any territory 



226 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

of the United States and the passage of a strict fuo^itive slave 
law. The free states demanded that slavery should not be 
allowed to go into any new states, or territories, and that it 
should be abolished in the District of Columbia. The two 
sections were also diametrically opposed on the question of 
the admission of California as a free state. Webster and 
Clay, alarmed as to the outcome, introduced and urged com- 
promise measures. These measures are known as the Com- 
promise of 1850, and the essential points were: 

(i) California was to be admitted as a free state, while 
Utah and New Mexico were to be organized as territories 
without any provision as to slavery. This practically nulli- 
fied the Missouri Compromise, for while that measure was 
passed to settle the slavery question in the Louisiana terri- 
tory, it was but natural that the parallel of 36° 30' should be 
considered as extending with the acquisition of new territory, 
as the boundary line between free and slave territory. 

(2) The slave trade was to be prohibited in the District 
of Columbia. 

(3 A strict fugitive slave law should be passed by 
Congress. After violent discussion this compromise was ad- 
opted. While, as in the case of the Missouri Compromise, 
many thought that the slavery question was now settled, the 
Compromise of 1850 was but a temporary measure, and 
secured merely a short lull in the slavery agitation. 

Ill The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854 

The Fugitive Slave Law, which was part of the Compro- 
mise of 1850, was energetically made use of by the slave 
owners of the South, and this served to create a more intense 
feeling against slavery in the North. "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 
though an unjust representation of the slavery system, was a 
powerful instrument in intensifying this feeling. Under 
these conditions the Democrats elected Pierce to the Presi- 
dency, and secured control of both Houses of Congress. The 



The Slavery Question 221 

leaders of both parties were anxious to let the slavery ques- 
tion rest, but Senator Douglas introduced a bill, known as 
the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which provided for the organiza- 
tion of Kansas and Nebraska into territories, and which 
expressly stated that the question of slavery should be left 
to the people of these territories. As Kansas and Nebraska 
were both entirely north of 36° 30', this was a violation of the 
Missouri Compromise, and the bill was strongly opposed on 
that account by the Free-soilers. The bill as finally passed, 
however, provided expressly for the repeal of the Missouri 
Compromise and thus re-opened the slavery question in all 
this western territory. 

IV Struggle for Kansas, 1854-1861 

As soon as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill was passed, a long, 
severe struggle for Kansas began. Since this territory would 
be free or slave as the settlers should decide, both the North 
and the South hurried in settlers in order to secure a ma- 
jority of voters. In addition to the actual settlers a large 
number of men came into Kansas from Missouri temporarily 
for the specific purpose of carrying the election for slavery 
by force and fraud. By illegal methods they succeeded in 
electing a wholly pro-slavery legislature. As the free-state 
settlers had not been allowed to vote, they formed a govern- 
ment of their own and asked for admission to the Union. 
The struggle which followed was a bloody one and lasted 
until 1861, when it was settled by the admission of Kansas 
to the Union as a free state. 

V The Dred Scott Decision, 1857 

Dred Scott was a slave taken by his master from Missouri 
into the free state of Illinois, and then into territory, which 
by the Missouri Compromise was to be forever free. On his 
return to Missouri he sued for his freedom on the ground 
that slavery could not exist on free soil, and therefore his 
residence in the free North had made him free. The Su- 



228 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

preme Court of the United States held that a slave was not 
a citizen, but property, and therefore had no rights in the 
courts. This meant that neither the Congress of the United 
States nor the legislature of a state or territory could inter- 
fere with slavery. It meant that slavery could exist in all the 
northern states and in all the western territory. This de- 
cision still further embittered the North. 

VT Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858 

In 1858 Stephen A. Douglas, a leading Democrat, was a 
candidate for re-election to the United States Senate from 
the state of Illinois. Abraham Lincoln was the Republican 
candidate, and a series of debates between the two men was 
held in the various towns of Illinois during the campaign. 
In these debates the principles of "squatter sovereignity" 
the Dred Scott decision, and other phases of the expansion 
of slavery were ably discussed. While the Democratic candi- 
date won the election, the debates served to bring Lincoln 
into national prominence, and to put the issues on slavery for- 
cibly before the people. Some of the admissions forced from 
Douglas concerning the control of slavery by Congress, alien- 
ated the extreme Southern Democratic party in the following 
presidential election. 

VII Election of Lincoln, i860 

Lincoln's position on the slave question was made plain 
in the Lincoln-Douglas debates, in which he declared that 
he was emphatically opposed to the extension of slavery, and 
that the nation must in time become all slave or all free. The 
majority of the people in the North agreed with him. While 
the Republican party disclaimed any intention of interfer- 
ing with slavery in the states where it existed, the South rec- 
ognized that the election of Lincoln to the presidency meant 
that slavery would not be further extended, and therefore 
considered it necessary, in order to preserve the institution 
of slavery, to withdraw from the Union. This withdrawal 
marks the beginning of the Civil War. 



Institutional Life 329 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

During the period from 1828 to i860 there was a marked de- 
velopment in the United States along institutional lines. This 
statement, however, applies more especially to the North and 
West, for in many ways institutional life in the South remained 
almost stationary. The growth and application of liberal demo- 
cratic ideas had an important effect on county, state and national 
government. There was great development in the North and 
West along industrial lines, and a marked growth in social, re- 
ligious and educational matters. The South did not have her 
share in this general advancement, for slavery caused her to re- 
main almost strictly agricultural, and thus her institutional life 
was becoming more and more unlike that of the rest of the nation. 
Events were soon to prove that these diverging lines of growth 
could not be brought together peaceably. 

I Industrial Conditions 

This period was one of wonderful industrial advance- 
ment for the nation as a whole. Foreign immigration, im- 
portant inventions, improvements in machinery of all kinds, 
and the marked improvement in transportation and communi- 
cation with the consequent opening up of the country, were 
all factors in this industrial advance, and resulted in the 
building up of great manufacturing and commercial inter- 
ests, the building of cities, and the development of new in- 
dustries. White labor was unable to compete with slave 
labor, consequently not only foreign immigrants passed by 
the slave holding states and went into the North and North- 
west, but a large number of the white laborers whose homes 
were in the South left their old homes and went North where 
free labor prevailed. Free labor is necessary for advancement 
along commercial and manufacturing lines, and hence the 
South was shut out from developing its immense natural 
resources along these lines and was kept at almost a stand- 



230 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

still industrially. The northern free states in i860 outnum- 
bered the southern slave holding states in white population 
by about 10,000,000, or more than two to one. Since agri- 
culture tends to scatter population, and manufacturing and 
commerce tend to centralize it, many cities sprang up in the 
North but very few in the South. 

1. Means of Transportation and Communication: Other 

Inventions 

The first railroad was built in the first years of this 
period and by i860 there were about 30,000 miles of rail- 
ways in operation in the United States. This enormous 
growth had a most important efifect on industrial condi- 
tions. It opened up large areas of new country to trade 
and greatly cheapened the cost of transportation, thus mak- 
ing many industrial changes. During this period street 
horse-cars were first put into use in the cities. In 1844 the 
first telegraph line in the world was constructed and by 
i860 telegraph lines were in operation throughout settled 
parts of the country. The telegraph and the steam rail- 
way have done more to do away with sectionalism than any 
other influence, for they have brought all parts of the 
country into close contact, and thus have made for the 
unity of the nation. 

2. Agriculture 

Agriculture continued to be the one great industry of the 
South. The great demand for cotton by the northern and 
the English manufacturers caused cotton to become the 
chief southern product. In the northern and northwest- 
ern states large amounts of food-stuffs, particularly wheat 
and corn were raised and great quantities were exported. 

3. Manufactures and Mining 

The manufacturing interests which had their rise in the 
preceding period increased wonderfully during this period. 



Institutional Life 231 

The many new inventions, including the reaper, the sewing 
machine, improvements in agricultural and household im- 
plements as well as in machinery for factories, and the 
extensive use of steam engines of various kinds were a part 
of, and were stimulating to, the great advance in manu- 
factures. By i860 the value of the manufacturing indus- 
tries had reached several thousand millions, and more than 
a million people were given employment in the factories. 

Great progress was made during this period in the de- 
velopment of the iron industry. This was due largely to 
the increased demand caused by the building of railroads, 
bridges, and machinery of all kinds. Pennsylvania was the 
center of the iron industry. Coal at this time first began to 
be used as a fuel in place of wood, and this caused the de- 
velopment of coal mines. The mining of gold and silver 
and other minerals began to be carried on in the western 
states during the latter part of this period. The real de- 
velopment of the mineral resources of the country, how- 
ever, took place in the period following the Civil War. 

4. Commerce and Cities 

While an important commerce, both domestic and for- 
eign, had been built up in the preceding period, it was now 
greatly improved and extended. This was due largely to 
the improved methods of transportation together with 
the growth of manufactures. By the end of this period 
American domestic and foreign commerce combined had 
become greater than that of any other nation. The rapid 
growth of commerce and manufactures was closely related 
to the rapid growth of cities. 

II Social Conditions 

Socially, as well as industrially, the South was at a stand- 
still. Class distinctions remained about the same. The new 
democracy which was leveling all classes in the North and 



232 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

West exerted but little influence here. Class privileges had 
largely disappeared in the northern and western sections 
of the country during the preceding period. It was at this 
time that great improvements in the conditions of the work- 
ing classes began to be made in the way of better modes of 
living, higher wages and shorter hours. 

III Government 

As has already been stated, the growth and application 
of liberal democratic ideas during this period, had a marked 
effect on government in the United States. This is indicated 
by the election of Jackson, and the origin of national nom- 
inating conventions. Especially was this shown in the many 
new constitutions formed by new and old states during this 
time, in which the powers of the governors and legislatures 
were in many cases limited. The judicial department was 
also brought more under popular control by changes in the 
method of selecting judges. In many cases where the judi- 
cial oflficers had been appointed for terms lasting during good 
behavior, they were now elected by the people for compara- 
tively short terms. The town and county governments were 
made more democratic, particularly in the new western 
states, by the enlarging of the number of officers elected 
directly by the people. Municipal government now first be- 
came important, for before this time both the number and 
size of the cities were small. As in the case of the state and 
county governments, the government of the cities was very 
democratic. 

IV Religion 

About 1830 a great wave of religious enthusiasm together 
with a general reforming spirit swept over the whole nation, 
and resulted in the rapid growth of church organizations, 
especially of the Evangelical sects. In the latter part of this 
period, slavery caused a division in many of these churches 
and diflferent branches were formed, such as North and South 



Institutional Life 233 

Methodists. The Mormon church had its rise at this time, 
and the persecution of its members on account of their doc- 
trines led to its migration into the West where it formed a 
sort of state of its own. 

V Education 

This was a period of mental awakening and intellectual 
advance in many directions. The public school system con- 
tinued to grow with the country. High schools, academies, 
and colleges made a distinct advance in all parts of the Union. 
Thousands of newspapers and magazines were published, 
and some of our best American authors, including Long- 
fellow, Whittier, Holmes, Bryant and Lowell among tiie 
poets, and Bancroft, Parkman. Motley and Prescott among 
the historians, wrote at this time. Henry Ward Beecher, 
Hawthorne and Wendell Phillips also belonged to this period. 
It is noticeable that most of this advance along educational 
lines took place in the non-slave holding states. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Over what part of American history does the period of National 
Growth and European Interference extend? What were the main features 
or characteristics of this period? Over what part of American history- 
does the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery extend? What were 
the main features or characteristics of this period? Explain carefully 
the relation between the main features of these two periods. 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES. 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Describe some of the main results which the growth of liberal demo- 
cratic ideas brought about during the period of National Growth and 
European Interference. Explain how the first six Presidents of the 
United States represented the upper or aristocratic class of society. For 
how long did these men control the national government? To what 
class did both Washington and Jefferson believe the higher officials of the 
national government should belong? What were their ideas as to who 
should vote? Explain carefully in what way the election of Jackson 
was contrary to the ideas of Washington and Jefferson. Discuss the 
character of Jackson, and show how his election marks the complete 
triumph of democracy in the LTnited States. Explain carefully the differ- 
ence between the democracy of Jefferson and the democracy of Jackson. 
(This question deserves the most careful consideration.) 

Upon what basis were men appointed to office under the national 
government before Jackson was elected President? Give a careful explan- 
ation of the Spoils System. When, by whom, and why was this system 
introduced into national politics? Discuss the evil effects of the Spoils 
System. How has Congress in recent years tried to overcome the evil 
effects of this system? 

What is a presidential elector? How is the number of presidential 
electors to which each state is entitled, determined? Why did those who 
framed the Constitution desire that the President should be elected by 
electors instead of directly by the people? Give a careful explanation 
of how the electors were chosen during the early history of the nation 
under the Constitution. Explain carefully how this affected the interest 
which the people took in the election of the President. Explain carefully 
how the growth of democratic ideas affected the manner of electing 
electors. How did this affect the interest which the people took in the 
presidential election of 1824 and the one of 1828? 



Questions and Topics 235 

Before the presidential campaign of 1832 how were the candidates 
for President and Vice-President nominated? How were they nomi- 
nated in the campaign of 1832? What is the object and the composition 
of national nominating conventions? What was the origin and what is 
the nature of national poHtical platforms? Explain carefully how the 
complete state and national organization of political parties gave the 
people control of, and increased their interest in, presidential elections. 
Give a full explanation of the nature and object of the campaign methods 
which the complete organization of political parties brought about. 

Why, in what way, and when did the Republican party break up? 
What new parties were formed during this period, and when were they 
formed? Who were the Democratic Presidents during this period, and 
over what years did the term or terms of each extend? Explain the 
principles of the Democratic party. What was some of its most impor- 
tant work? Who were the Whig Presidents, and over what years did 
the term of each extend? Discuss the principles of the Whig party. 
Explain carefully why these principles were not carried out when this 
party was in power. What effect did this have on the party? What 
caused the organization of the Republican party, and what was therefore 
one of the main principles of this party? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Compare, by a discussion, the main features or characteristics of the 
period of National Growth and European Interference with the main 
features or characteristics of the period of Westward Expansion and 
Slavery. Give a careful discussion of the meaning of Jackson's election. 
Discuss the Spoils System, including its origin, development, and effect. 
Give a careful discussion of this subject, — manner of electing presidential 
electors, including the effect of the change in the manner of electing. 
Discuss the origin and result of national nominating conventions, plat- 
forms, and campaigns. Discuss the reorganization of political parties 
during Jackson's first administration. Discuss the principles and impor- 
tant measures of the Democratic party during this period. Discuss the 
principles of the Whig party and the cause of its fall. Discuss the origin 
of the Republican party. 

FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF. 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain carefully why the tariff of 1828 is known as the Tariff of 
Abominations. Explain carefully how this tariff came to be passed. 
Why had the South become opposed to the protective principle of the 
tariff? How was the tariff of 1828 received in the South? Compare the 



236 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

doctrine stated in the exposition and protest of South CaroHna with 
the doctrine stated in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, and in 
the Hartford convention. In what way had Calhoun changed his views 
on these questions? What do you think caused him to do this? What 
is meant by the right of nullification? Describe carefully the trouble 
which the national government had with South Carolina over the question 
of the tariff. What were the terms of the compromise tariff of 1832? 
What other changes were made in the tariff during this period? 

When was the first and the second charter of the United States Bank 
granted, and when did each of these charters expire? What is meant 
by a monopoly? Explain why Jackson was opposed to the United States 
Bank. Explain the way in which this bank became the main issue in 
the presidential campaign of 1832. Explain how Jackson succeeded in 
destroying the United States Bank. Explain carefully how the destruc- 
tion of the United States Bank caused the organization of many state 
banks. Explain what led to the issuing of large sums of paper money. 
What is hard money? Why was this paper money not so good as hard 
money? Explain the meaning of speculation. Explain carefully how 
the distribution of the government money among the state banks, and 
the making of paper money by these banks, led to a great deal of specu- 
lation at this time. What first caused the paper money that was issued 
by the state banks to become of less value than gold or silver? What 
is meant by specie? What is meant by specie payment? Explain care- 
fully why Jackson issued his specie circular. How did this circular 
cause paper money to become of still less value? 

Describe the conditions that caused a surplus of forty million dollars 
to accumulate to the credit of the United States during the years 1835 
and 1836. What was done with this surplus ? Explain carefully how 
the distribution of the surplus to the various states caused the value of 
paper money to become still less. When the paper money became almost 
worthless, how was business affected? What is the condition of business 
when a financial panic is said to exist? Describe the condition of busi- 
ness during the financial panic of 1837. Describe the Independent or 
Subtreasury System. How did the panic of 1837 lead to the establish- 
ment of this system? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Give a full discussion of the tariflf of 1828 and the trouble which the 
national government had with South Carolina over this tariff. Give a 
full discussion of the United States Bank, showing clearly how its destruc- 
tion led to the financial panic of 1837. Discuss the Independent Treas 
ury System. 



Questions and Topics 237 

GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND 
POPULATION 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What were the boundaries of the United States at the close of the 
Revolution? Describe the increase in the territory of the United States 
between the Revolution and 1820. Explain carefully the importance to 
the United States of the territory secured during this time. Why were 
Jefferson and other leading Americans anxious to secure the Oregon 
country, and why was the territory of special value to the United States? 
Explain events leading to the final settlement of the Oregon question, 
and the terms of the treaty that settled this question. 

Explain carefully the conditions that caused the South to desire to 
secure more slave territor3^ Why was the South especially anxious to 
secure Texas ? Dccribe the settlement of Texas by the Americans. 
Was there anything unusual about this advance of the Americans into 
Texas ? Explain carefully how Texas became independent of Mexico. 
Why was the South strongly in favor of annexing Texas, and why was 
the North opposed to this? Explain how the annexation of Texas and 
the Oregon question became important issues in the presidential cam- 
paign of 1S44. Explain carefully how the annexation of Texas brought 
on the Mexican War. Do you think the United States was justified in 
beginning this war? Give reasons for your answer. Briefly describe 
General Taylor's campaign. Briefly describe General Scott's campaign. 
Give the time, place, and explain the terms of the treaty that ended 
the war with Mexico. How was additional territory secured from 
Mexico in 1853? 

Explain carefully how the United States secured all the territory which 
it secured from the beginning of the American Revolution to the begin- 
ning of the Civil War. Explain the value to the United States of each 
addition in territory. How did the growth of the United States in 
population during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery com- 
pare with its growth in territory? What states were formed in the 
great central plain during this period? Discuss the growth in popula- 
tion of the Oregon Territory. Discuss the growth of California and its 
admission to the Union. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the entire controversy between England and the United 
States over the Oregon Territory. Discuss the conditions and events 
which led to the annexation of Texas. Discuss the causes, campaigns, 
and results of the war with Mexico. Discuss quite fully the growth of 
the United States in territory and population, including the importance 
of this growth. 



238 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

THE SLAVERY QUESTION 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain why the question of slavery during this period would be 
related naturally to the growth of the nation in territory. To what 
extent did the Missouri Compromise settle the question of slavery? De- 
scribe the gradual abolition of slavery in the northern states, and explain 
carefully the re^asons for this. What was the feeling in the South toward 
slavery from about the close of the Revolution to 1800? What was the 
cause of this feeling? Explain carefully the conditions which caused 
the South, after about 1800, to become more and more in favor of slavery, 
and which caused slavery to become more and more firmly rooted in 
southern industrial, social, and political life. 

What is meant by abolition and Abolitionists as related to the slavery 
question? Describe the growth of the abolition sentiment in the North, 
and explain the attitude of the Abolitionists toward slavery. On what 
grounds did the Abolitionists force the South to defend slavery? 
Describe fully how the people in the South and most of those in the 
North treated the Abolitionists. Why did the Abolitionists send peti- 
tions to Congress? Explain the attitude of the southern members of 
Congress and of many of the northern members toward these petitions 
against slavery. Explain what is meant by the Gag Resolutions. In 
what way did these resolutions violate the Constitution of the United 
States? What effect did these resolutions have on the people of the 
North? What effect did the slavery petitions and their discussion in 
Congress and by the press have on the people of the South? 

Explain very fully why the South was very much opposed to the 
admission of California as a free state. Why was the North strongly 
in favcr of admitting California into the Union as a free state? In what 
way was the question of slavery in relation to the territory secured from 
Mexico first brought up for discussion in Congress? Explain the con- 
ditions that caused Clay and Webster to submit and urge the adoption 
of the Compromise of 1850. Explain carefully each provision of this 
compromise, and the effect or bearing of each of these provisions on the 
slavery question. 

What was "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and what was its effect on the slavery 
question? In what way did the Fugitive Slave Law and the strong 
attempt of the South to enforce it affect the slavery question? Explain 
carefully what was meant by the doctrine of Popular or Squatter Sover- 
eignty. Who was the author of this doctrine? How did it affect the 
question of slavery in all the western territory? Explain carefully the 
provisions of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Explain fully how the doctrine 
of popular sovereignty as applied in the Kansas-Nebraska Bill affected 



Questions and Topics 239 

the settlement of Kansas. How did the struggle in Kansas influence 
the people of both the North and the South in regard to the slavery 
question? What were the conditions that led to the Dred Scott Decision? 
State clearly the principles of this decision, and explain carefully what 
would have been their efifect on slavery if they had been fully carried 
out. What general effect did the Dred Scott Decision and the Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill have on the people of the North? 

Explain carefully the conditions that led to the Lincoln-Douglas 
Debates. Explain the main phases of the slavery question that were 
discussed in these debates. Explain the attitude of both Lincoln and 
Douglas on these questions. What effect did these debates have on 
the people of the nation ? What effect did they have on the future of 
Lincoln and Douglas in connection with the presidential campaign of 
i860? Explain carefully why the election of Lincoln caused some of the 
southern states to secede. 

Explain very fully how the topography, climate, and soil of the east- 
ern part of the United States caused slavery to be abolished in the North 
and not to be abolished in the South. Explain carefully how the inven- 
tion of improved weaving machinery and the cotton gin affected the 
growth of slavery in the South. Explain fully to what extent the differ- 
ence in the topography, climate, and soil of the North and South was the 
real or fundamental cause of the American Civil War. In your opinion, 
what would have been the result, so far as slavery is concerned, if the 
colonists who settled in the South had settled in the North, and those 
who settled in the North had settled in the South? What general effect 
was slavery having on industrial conditions in the South? If slavery had 
been quietly restricted to the cotton-raising states and the border slave 
states, and if the question of slavery had not become an important issue 
between the North and South, what do you think would have finally been 
the fate of slavery in the southern states? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the conditions affecting the growth of slavery. Discuss the 
rise of the Abolitionists, and the effect of their work on the slavery 
question. Discuss the Gag Resolutions and their effect on the slavery 
question. Discuss the conditions which led to the Compromise of 1850, 
and the provisions and results of this compromise. Discuss the Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill and its effect on the slavery question. Discuss the Dred 
Scott Decision. Discuss the Lincoln-Douglas Debates, including in this 
discussion the conditions which led to these debates, the principles dis- 
cussed in them, and their results on the future of slavery. Beginning 
v/ith the difference between the topography, climate, and soil of the 
North and South, give a careful discussion of the causes which led to 
the American Civil War. 



240 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What was the nature of the growth along institutional lines during 
the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery? What were the con- 
ditions or factors which caused this growth? Compare the industrial 
growth of the South with that of the North and Northwest. Explain 
carefully what caused this difference. Compare the North and South 
with regard to population and cities, and give the causes for the differ- 
ence which existed between the two sections in these respects. 

Review briefly the improvement in means of transportation and com- 
munication that was made during the period of National Growth and 
European Interference. Explain fully what might have been the effect 
on the nation if the railroad and the telegraph had not been invented. 
Explain why the nation is smaller to-day for purposes of business and 
government than was the state of New York or the state of Pennsylvania 
before the railroad and telegraph came into use. In what way did the 
railroad help to settle up the country? Explain carefully how railroads 
helped the growth of the feeling of national unity. Discuss what the 
results would be to-day if all the railroads and all telegraph lines were 
destroyed. 

Describe the origin of railroads in the United States and the charac- 
ter of those first built. Describe carefully the growth of railroads in 
the United States up to i860. Describe the origin of the telegraph and 
ihe growth of telegraph lines in the United States up to i860. Describe 
the origin of the trans-Atlantic cable. Explain carefully the value of 
the telegraph. 

Describe briefly the growth of inventions in the United States from 
1790 to i860. Name some of the more important inventions made during 
the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Describe the origin 
of the sewing machine, and explain its importance to industrial condi- 
tions. Describe the origin of the reaper and the threshing machine, and 
explain their importance to industrial conditions. Describe carefully 
some of the other inventions and discoveries made during this period, 
and explain the value of each. Indicate in a general way the value to 
mankind of all these inventions and discoveries. 

Describe the condition of agriculture in the different sections of the 
country. Explain carefully how the invention of new machinery affected 
the growth of agriculture. What can you say about the development 
of the great mineral resources of the nation? Explain how the invention 
of new machinery affected the growth of manufactures. What was the 
condition of the manufacturing industry in i860? How did its condition 
then compare with its condition to-day? Explain how the growth of 
agriculture and manufactures affected the growth of commerce. What 



Questions and Topics 241 

was the condition of American commerce in i860, and how does its con- 
dition now compare with its condition then? What was the condition 
of the American shipping industry at that time, and how does its condi- 
tion now compare with its condition then? Explain carefully the effect 
of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce on the growth of cities. 
Show plainly how the growth of cities in the North and South during this 
period illustrates this principle. In what way was slavery connected with 
the growth of cities in the South? 

What was the most important change in social conditions during the 
periods of National Growth and European Interference and Westward 
Expansion and Slavery? Discuss each of the classes which existed in 
southern society during the latter period. Explain carefully why these 
sharp class distinctions still existed in the South. Give a full and care- 
ful discussion of the causes which tended to destroy class distinctions 
in northern society. Explain the efifect of these causes or principles 
on social relations in the North. How did the railroads aiifect the man- 
ners, customs, and amusements of the people? Compare the amusements 
of the people in the country with the amusements of those in the cities. 
Explain the conditions which enabled the people to have better food and 
better clothes. 

What was the nature of the change in government during the period 
of Westward Expansion and Slavery? Explain in what way this was 
true with regard to the changes in national government. Explain in 
what way it was true with regard to the changes in state government. 
Explain in what way it was true with regard to changes in local govern- 
ment. Explain in what way and why these changes did not apply to 
the South. Explain carefully why the judicial department of govern- 
ment is so very important. Explain carefully why the selection of judges 
is of so great importance. Why may the election of judges by popular 
vote be unwise and result in injury? If you were voting for a man for 
the position of judge, and there were several candidates, how would 
you decide for which one to vote ? 

What was the nature of the changes or growth in religious conditions 
during this period? How did this growth affect the standard of morals 
among the masses of people? Review briefly the condition of education 
during the period of National Growth and European Interference. De- 
scribe carefully the growth of the public school system during the period 
of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Describe the conditions which 
existed during this time that caused rapid improvement in the public 
schools after the Civil War. What was the condition of literature during 
the period of National Growth and European Interference? What was 
its condition during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery? 
Name some of the more important writers of this period, and one of 
the more important works of each. Explain carefully the effect that 



242 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

the work of these men had on the masses of the people. In what way 
did the work of these men affect Hterature and education after the Civil 
War? What effect did the Civil War have in this respect? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the nature of the industrial changes which took place during 
the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Discuss the improve- 
ments in the means of transportation and communication, and the effect 
of this improvement on the industrial and social life of the nation and 
on the growth of national unity. Discuss some of the other important 
inventions and discoveries of this period, and their effect on the indus- 
trial life of the nation. Discuss the growth of agriculture and manu- 
factures. Discuss the growth of commerce and cities. Discuss the 
changes in social conditions. Discuss the changes in government. Dis- 
cuss the changes in religion. Discuss the growth of literature and the 
public schools. 



THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

(In connection with the study of this subject each pupil should 
read the fourth number of Hart's Source Readers.) 

COMPARATIVE RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND 

THE SOUTH 

I Available Soldiers, Commanders and Military 

Supplies 
D- 525-526; Mc. 422-424; Ma. 340-341; G. 320-321; 
T. 332-335. 341 ; M. 298-299 

II Financial Resources: Means of Transportation 

D. 526-528; Mc. 423; Ma. 340-341; G. 320-321; T. 
360-361; M. 333 

SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS 

I The Right of Secession 

D. 529-531 ; G. 318 

II Secession 

D- 531-535; Mc. 378-381; Ma. 332-337; G. 319; T. 
323-325; M. 292-297 

III The Fall of Fort Sumter 

D- 535-537; Mc. 382; Ma. 337-339; G. 322-324; T. 
326, 328, 330, 331 ; M. 294-296 

IV The Battle of Bull Run 

D- 537-538; Mc. 387-388; Ma. 341-343; G. 324-327; 
T. 336-337; M. 300-302 

CAMPAIGNS 

I Scope and Nature of Campaigns: Method of 
Treatment 
D. 538-541; G. 328; T. 338; M. 302 



244 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

II The Eastern Campaign 

1. The First Advance on Richmond 

D. 541-543; Mc. 392-394; Ma. 343. 354-357; G. 
336-342; T. 340; M. 310-312 

2. The Battles of Antietann and Fredericksburg 

D. 543-544; Mc. 394; Ma. 357-359; G. 342; 
T. 347-348 ;M. 313-314 

3. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation 

D. 544-546 ; Mc. 394-396 ; Ma. 358-359 ; G. 348- 
350; T. 349-352; M. 314 

4. The Battles of Chancellorsznlle and Gettysburg 

D. 546-548 ; Mc. 396 ; Ma. 359-362 ; G. 343-347 ; 
T. 353-356; M. 315-317 

III The Western Campaign 

1. The Western Commanders 

D- 548-550 

2. Union Successes in Western Tennessee 

D- 550-553; Mc. 388-391; Ma. 348-352; G. 331- 
336; T. 341-343. 353; M. 305-308 

3. The Capture of New Orleans 

D- 553-554; Mc. 391-392; Ma. 352-353; G. 336; 
T. 346; M. 308-310 

4. The Battles of Pcrryville and Murfreesboro: Result 

of the Year's Work — 1862 
D- 554-556; Ma. 353-354; T. 348; M. 313-314 

5. Capture of Vicksburg 

D. 556-557; Mc. 397-398; Ma. 362-364; T. 356- 
357; M. 317-320 

6. Chickamauga and Chattanooga 

D- 558-559; Mc. 398-399; Ma. 365-366; G. 351- 
354; T. 357; M. 320 

7. Result of the Year's Work — /^<5j 

D- 559 



The Work of the Nai'y in the Civil War 245 

IV The Campaigns of 1864-1865 

1. The War in the West and the South 

D. 560-562 ; Mc. 399-406 ; Ma. 372, n^-yj^ \ G. 
357-361; T. 367-374, 380; M. 322-333 

2. The War in Virginia 

D. 562-565; Ma. 369-372; G. 355-357. 365-367; 
T. 382 ; M. 322-323, 324-326 

THE WORK OF THE NAVY IN THE CIVIL WAR 

I. Blockade of the Southern Ports 

D. 565-566; Mc. 410-412; Ma. 344-345; G. 328-329; 
T. 332-333. 358-375; M. 302-303 

II Commerce Destroyers 

D. 566-568; Mc. 412-414; Ma. 345-347; G. 329; T. 
358-359, 375 ; M. 303-304 

III The Revolution in Naval Warfare 

D. 568-569; Mc. 414-417; ^la. 347-348, 373 > G. 329- 
331; T. 343-346; M. 303-305 

RESULTS 

D. 570; Mc. 419-424; Ma. 379-385; G. 369-370; T. 386- 
388; M. 315, 337 



THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

The real causes of the Civil War were much deeper than the 
political events which led up to it. As has already been stated, 
the fundamental causes of this war are to be found in the differ- 
ence in the topography, climate and soil of the North and South, 
and in the introduction of slavery into the English colonies. The 
effect of these conditions in developing two civilizations in the 
two sections of the country differing in almost every way, and 
the consequent growth of antagonism between the North and the 
South, have been rather fully treated in preceding topics. To 
sum up the conditions leading inevitably to war : The topography, 
climate and soil of the United States made slavery profitable in 
the South and unprofitable in the North. This led to the gradual 
abolition of slavery in the North and to the gradual growth there 
of a sentiment against it. In the South, on the other hand, 
industrial conditions tended to establish slavery permanently, 
and the whole social and industrial life of the South became 
firmly moulded around the institution of slavery. The North, 
resting upon a foundation of free labor, developed its resources 
and outgrew the South rapidly in population and wealth. The 
South, because of the nature and effect of slave labor, was falling 
behind the North in nearly all respects. It had come to regard 
negro slavery as morally right and something to be protected and 
encouraged. Long before the outbreak of the Civil War, southern 
society rested so firmly on slavery that to destroy it meant, in 
a certain sense, the destruction of southern institutions. It is no 
wonder, therefore, that the statesmen and slave owners of the 
South would not for a moment consider the abolition of the 
slavery system. 

By i860 the North and the South had become two peoples, 
socially and industrially. The statesmen of the South foresaw 
that it was only a question of time when the slave states must 
leave the Union, or give up slavery, and thus wreck the founda- 
tions of southern society. They chose to fight rather than do this. 
The people of the North, under the same circumstances, would 



Comparative Resources of the North and tlie SoutJi 247 

probably have followed a similar course. In other words, there 
were conditions which made the Civil War inevitable. It was 
caused by forces beyond the control of the people of either section. 
It dealt with one of those questions in advancing civilization that 
must usually be settled by the sword. 

COMPARATIVE RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND 

THE SOUTH 

I Available Soldiers, Commanders, and Military Supplies 

The total population of the United States in i860 was about 
31,000,000. There were not more than 6,000,000 white inhab- 
itants in the states that seceded and not less than 20,000,000 
in those states that supported the national government. 
There were many men of military training in both the North 
and the South and a few of great military genius, but the 
ablest military leaders of the North did not secure command 
of the Federal army until several years after the war began, 
while the southern armies were commanded by the ablest 
southern generals from the very first. 

In the beginning the South had the advantage in the way 
of military supplies, which had been stored in southern 
arsenals before the outbreak of hostilities. But as the North 
tightened the blockade and prevented the bringing in of war 
material from England, the South, having no manufactures 
of her own, became severely handicapped because of the 
scarcity which prevailed. It was not until the outcome of 
the war had practically been decided that the necessary fac- 
tories were put into operation for supplying the needs of 
the southern armies. The North, being a manufacturing 
country, with factories already in operation, was able to pro- 
vide itself with the necessary military supplies. 

II Financial Resources: Facilities for Transportation 

When the blockade stopped the export of their cotton and 
tobacco, the southerners became reduced to dreadful straits 
for money. To meet this condition an immense amount of 



248 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

paper money was issued just as had been done by the Conti- 
nental Congress during the Revolution, and, Hke the Conti- 
nental Currency, this Confederate money soon depreciated 
in value until it became almost worthless. In the North, on 
account of a much stronger credit, the government was able 
to sell immense quantities of bonds, and to issue paper money 
without its depreciation to any very great extent as com- 
pared with the currency of the Confederacy. On account 
of its industrial activity, the North was also able to raise 
large sums from taxation. 

Before and during the war a vast network of railroads 
was being woven between the various northern states. When 
the crisis came, the North was able to transport soldiers and 
military supplies from one point to another with compara- 
tively little delay. In the South, on the other hand, railroads 
were comparatively few and poorly equipped, nor had they 
the iron for replacing worn-out rails, nor the workmen to 
repair and keep the lines in working order. There was no 
lack of agricultural products, but much distress and even 
threatened starvation was caused both to the soldiers and 
the other inhabitants because of the poor means of distribu- 
tion. 

SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS 

I The Right of Secession 

The constitution is silent on the question of secession. 
Many people held that there was no legal nor constitutional 
objection to secession. The other view is that the adoption 
of the constitution by the " people " of the United States and 
not by the "states" denies to any state the legal right to 
secede. Many maintain that although the southern people 
were mistaken, most of them believed that the North was 
trying to deprive them of their rights and liberties, and that 
this gave them the natural right to take up arms in defence 
of those rights and liberties as their forefathers had done 
in the past. 



Secession and Beginnings "'^49 

II Secession 

The admission of California as a free state and the result 
of the Kansas trouble convinced the southern leaders that 
there could be no hope of the further extension of slave 
territory. The election of Lincoln furnished the opportunity 
or excuse for withdrawing from the Union. The southern 
leaders now believed that secession was the only means of 
saving slavery. In December, i860, South Carolina seceded 
and shortly afterwards six other southern states followed. 
Delegates from these states met at Alontgomery and organ- 
ized the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis 
was elected President and Alexander Stephens, Vice-Presi- 
dent. 

III The Fall of Fort Sumter 

The new government immediately began taking possession 
of all the federal property in the seceded states. President 
Buchanan made no serious attempt to prevent this. When 
Lincoln was inaugurated he took steps to save this property 
to the L'nion. He declared that no state had a right to 
secede, and that he would uphold the law. The seceding 
states could not be an independent nation and be under the 
federal law, so this meant civil war. Lincoln attempted to 
send supplies to Fort Sumter and this led to its bombard- 
ment and capture by the Confederates. 

The effect of the fall of Fort Sumter on the North was 
to arouse the people to an effort to uphold the Union. Lin- 
coln called for seventy-five thousand men, and this made 
the border slave states withdraw. 

IV The Battle of Bull Run 

The real war began at Bull Run, where the Union 
army attacked the Confederates. The Union army was 
defeated, and this showed the North the difficulty of the 
task of subduing the South. The South felt that this battle 
would end the war, but the movement in the North toward 
raising new armies soon caused the southern people to realize 
that a great conflict had just begun. 



250 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

CAMPAIGNS 

I Scope and Nature of Campaigns: Method of Treat- 

ment 

The federal government planned three great military move- 
ments with a view of forcing the South back into the Union. 
One was to move directly toward Richmond. This with 
the protection of Washington was the work for the Army 
of the Potomac. A second was to get control of the Missis- 
sippi, cutting off the Confederate states to the westward. 
This was the work for the Army of the West. A third 
plan was to blockade the southern ports and cut off all com- 
munication by water with the outside world. This called 
for an immense navy. To meet these armies the Confed- 
erate states organized the Army of Northern Virginia, and 
several western armies. A number of ironclads were con- 
structed to defend the seaports and to break up the blockade. 
The Army of Northern Virginia was fortunate in having 
the same commander throughout the war. This cannot be 
said of any other army either north or south. Robert E. 
Lee, the commander in Virginia, was one of the ablest gen- 
erals the new world has produced and the numerous suc- 
cesses of the Army of Northern Virginia were due in a 
large measure to his leadership. 

For the sake of clearness the campaigns will be taken up 
under the following heads : 

(i) The Eastern Campaign, taking up the struggle in 
the East up to the time that Grant takes command. 

(2) The Western Campaign, including the operations 
in the West. 

(3) The Campaign of 1864- 1865 will include the work 
of Grant as Commander-in-Chief. 

II The Eastern Campaign 

I. First Advance on Richmond 

After the disastrous battle of Bull Run, the troops 
around Washington were placed under the command of 



Campaigns 251 

McClellan, and called the Army of the Potomac. The 
proposed work of this army was to capture Richmond. 
Two plans were proposed for reaching Richmond. The 
authorities at Washington thought that the better way was 
for the army to proceed directly South. ^IcCIellan ob- 
jected to this, on account of the many rivers in the path, 
beside which strong fortifications had been erected by the 
Confederates. He advised that soldiers be landed from 
transports at Yorktown, Virginia, and from there pro- 
ceed against Richmond. McClellan's plan prevailed, and 
in the spring of 1862, with an army of 100,000 men, he 
was transferred to the vicinity of Yorktown. After several 
months of hard fighting the campaign ended in failure. 

2. BatPlcs of A)itictain and Fredericksburg 

In August, 1862, McClellan was ordered back to defend 
Washington. A month later, the armies of Lee and Mc- 
Clellan met at Sharpsburg, or Antietam, in western Mary- 
land. Here a great battle was fought, with the result that 
Lee was compelled to retreat across the Potomac and for 
the time abandoned his idea of invading the North. As 
McClellan did not follow Lee with sufficient energy to meet 
the approval of the authorities at Washington, he was re- 
moved and Burnside was placed in command. In Decem- 
ber, 1862, Burnside was defeated at Fredericksburg, and 
his command was given to General Hooker. 

3. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation 

On September 22, 1862, in the face of the defeats of 
of the Union armies Lincoln took a firm stand on the 
slavery question and issued his Proclamation of Emanci- 
pation. This applied only to those states in open rebel- 
lion and it was intended purely as a military measure to 
cripple the seceding states. The whole North, however, 
believed that in case the North was successful, this meant 
the end of slavery in America, as was actually the case. 



252 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

4. Battles of Cha)icellorsville and Gettysburg 

In the spring of 1863 Hooker crossed the Rapidan, 
only to meet with a terrible defeat at the hands of Lee's 
army at Chancellorsville. In this battle Stonewall Jack- 
son, one of Lee's ablest generals, was accidentally killed 
by his own men. Encouraged by his victory over Hooker, 
Lee again attempted to invade the North. Amid great 
excitement throughout the North, Hooker was removed, 
and General George A. Meade given command of the 
Army of the Potomac. The two armies met at Gettys- 
burg, a village in southeastern Pennsylvania. Here, on 
the first, second, and third days of July, 1863, was fought 
one of the greatest battles in the history of the world. 
Lee's army was defeated, and he never again attempted 
to carry the war into the enemy's country. Meade did 
not pursue Lee's shattered forces. The Army of the 
Potomac fought no other great battles until after Grant 
assumed command of all the armies of the United States, 
in March, 1864. 

Ill The Western Campaign 

1. The Western Commanders 

The leading commanders in the West on the Union 
side were Grant, Sherman, Thomas, and Sheridan. Grant 
stands out as the most successful Union commander. His 
success was due to his persistence. Next to Grant was 
Sherman, Grant's right hand man in the western cam- 
paigns. Thomas was one of the most reliable commanders 
in the North while Sheridan was the most brilliant cavalry 
commander. 

2. Union Successes in Western Tennessee 

In the early part of 1862, Grant was placed in command 
of the Union forces at Cairo, Illinois. His first important 
work was the capture of Forts Henry and Donaldson, on 
the Cumberland River. These forts commanded the Ten- 



Campaigns 253 

nessee and Cumberland Rivers, which Grant wanted to 
open. After three days of fighting-, Buckner, as com- 
mander of the Confederate forces, asked Grant what 
terms would be granted him if he should surrender the 
fort, together with his force of fifteen thousand men. 
Grant replied, "No terms, except unconditional and imme- 
diate surrender, can be accepted." Buckner surrendered 
under the terms mentioned, and thus Grant won the firsi 
great Union victory. Grant now moved up the Tennessee 
and fought the battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing. 
Albert Sidney Johnston, in command of the Confederate 
army, was killed and his army forced to retreat. 

3. Capture of New Orleans 

While Grant was operating in Tennessee, Farragut was 
moving with his fleet against New Orleans. It was im- 
portant to take this city for two reasons : To cut off 
supplies that were coming from Texas and Mexico, and 
to open up the Mississippi. Farragut silenced the forts 
and secured the city's surrender. 

4. Perryznlle and Miirfrecshoro : Result of the Year's 

Work— 1862 
The Confederates made a desperate attempt to regain 
Eastern Tennessee after the loss of so many important 
posts. Bragg led an army from Chattanooga and met 
the Union army under Buell at Perryville in Kentucky. 
Bragg retired to Chattanooga and next marched north- 
ward and met Thomas and Sheridan at Murfreesboro. 
Bragg again retired to Chattanooga. This ended the 
campaign for 1862. Grant had during the year made 
great headway, while in the East the northern armies were 
being defeated by Lee. 

5. Capture of Vickshiirg 

Grant's next important work was the siege and capture 
of Vicksburg. Vicksburg was a well fortified city on the 



254 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

Mississippi, defended by thirty-seven thousand soldiers 
under the command of Pemberton. After a siege of seven 
weeks, the city was compelled to surrender on the fourth 
day of July, 1863, just one day after the defeat of Lee 
at Gettysburg. Port Hudson surrendered five days later, 
and the Federal government had secured control of the 
Mississippi from Minnesota to the Gulf. These events 
were the beginning of the end, and the cause of the South 
from this time onward steadily declined. 

6. Chickammiga and Chattanooga 

After Vicksburg, Grant centered his efforts against the 
Confederates in Tennessee. A bloody battle was fought 
at Chickamauga, where Thomas saved the Union army 
from defeat. 

Grant next turned his attention to Chattanooga, at which 
place Bragg had defeated Rosecrans and laid siege to the 
Union army. Under the direction of Grant, the two bril- 
liant battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge 
were fought. The Confederates under Bragg were driven 
southward toward Atlanta. 

7. Result of the Year's Work — 1863 

This ended the campaign of 1863 in the West. Again 
Grant had succeeded in his work. Since he began opera- 
tions, he had with Farragut's help opened up the Missis- 
sippi, captured Vicksburg with a wholeConfederate army 
and had driven the Confederates out of Kentucky and 
Tennessee. In the East, with the exception of Gettysburg, 
Lee had successfully resisted the Army of the Potomac. 
This contrast caused Lincoln and the whole nation to look 
to Grant as the man to lead the army against Lee. 

IV The Campaigns of 1864-1865 

I. War in the West and South 

In March, 1864, Grant was made Commander-in-Chief 
of all the Union forces. He gave his personal attention 



The Work of the Navy 255 

to the Army of the Potomac, but directed the movements 
of all the Federal troops. Sherman was placed in com- 
mand at Chattanooga. He moved South, captured Atlanta, 
and then made his famous march to the sea. 

2. The War in Virginia 

Early in the spring of 1864, Grant took command of 
the Army of the Potomac, consisting of about one hun- 
dred twenty thousand men. He moved his army south- 
ward, crossed the Rappahannock and entered the Wilder- 
ness. Here he met Lee's army of sixty thousand men, and 
a terrible struggle ensued. In one month Grant lost sixty- 
four thousand soldiers, but he forced Lee to retreat and 
take up his position within the fortifications of Richmond. 
Grant laid siege to the city. Sherman's march through 
the South and Sheridan's raids with his cavalry had cut 
off a large part of Lee's provisions. Lee evacuated Rich- 
mond and attempted to escape, but Grant surrounded his 
army and forced a surrender at Appomattox Court House, 
a little place about seventy-five miles west of Richmond, 
April 9, 1865. The surrender of Lee marked the end of 
the Civil War, although some of the other southern armies 
did not surrender until a little later. 

THE WORK OF THE NAVY IN THE CIVIL WAR 

I Blockade of the Southern Ports 

At the beginning of the war the national government, in 
order to cripple the Confederacy as much as possible, decided 
upon a complete blockade of the southern ports. Until this 
blockade was effected, the South could export cotton, sugar, 
and tobacco, and import arms and other military supplies. 
To accomplish this blockade, the national government had 
at first about twenty-four vessels, but it built and equipped 
a navy with marvelous rapidity, and by the close of the year 
1861, had the blockade fairly effective. There were more 
than three thousand miles of coast for the Union vessels to 



256 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

watch, however, and many vessels, known as blockade-run- 
ners, would slip past the Union vessels in the night and suc- 
ceed in bringing supplies to the Confederates. During the 
war, more than fifteen hundred of these blockade-runners 
were taken or destroyed by the Union fleet. 

II Commerce Destroyers 

While the North was busy in perfecting a blockade of 
the southern coast, the Confederates were fitting out vessels 
called Commerce-Destroyers. It was the business of these 
vessels to watch the great highways of commerce and to 
destroy as many Union merchant ships as possible. The 
most famous vessels of this kind were the Florida, the Ala- 
bama, and the Shenandoah, all of which were fitted out in 
England. They did an immense amount of damage to the 
Commerce of the North during the war. In 1872, a board 
of arbitration, to which the case had been submitted, decided 
that England should pay the United States the sum of fifteen 
million dollars on account of the injury done to American 
commerce during the war by the Confederate Commerce- 
Destroyers which had been fitted out in English ports. This 
settlement is known as the Geneva Award. 

III The Revolution in Naval Warfare 

In the early part of 1862 the Confederates raised a vessel 
which had been sunk in the navy yard at Norfolk, Virginia. 
They covered it with a double plating of iron, and chris- 
tened it the Virginia. This was the first ironclad warship 
ever constructed. With this vessel the Confederates de- 
stroyed several of the larger Union war vessels at that time 
lying in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Before it had completed 
the work of destruction at that port, the Monitor, an iron- 
clad vessel built in New York by John Ericsson, arrived on 
the scene. A battle took place between the two vessels which 
was to be the most important single event of the war, proving 
as it did that a few ironclad vessels could destroy the largest 



Results 257 

wooden navy afloat. A complete revolution in naval con- 
struction now took place, and the great wooden war-vessels 
of the world were rapidly supplanted by iron-protected 
fighting-machines. 

RESULTS 

The main results of the Civil War were the destruction of 
slavery, the great industrial development of the South, which the 
destruction of slavery made possible, the enfranchisement of the 
negro, and the race problem which this enfranchisement created 
and which has not yet been settled. Since the war the industrial 
development of the South has been extremely rapid. Iron and 
coal fields second to none in the world have been discovered. The 
production of cotton has vastly increased. Manufacturing estab- 
lishments of every kind have been springing into existence. Many 
large manufacturing establishments are moving their machinery 
from New England into the South. 

Another important result of the w^ar has been the unification 
of the nation. Sectional feeling has almost vanished because 
slavery, its cause, has been removed. During the Spanish-Ameri- 
can War ex-Confederate soldiers fought side by side with Federal 
soldiers who had been their old opponents in the Civil War. 
Other results of the war were the destruction of more than six 
billion dollars' worth of property and the loss of about seven 
hundred thousand of the best men of the nation, the South losing 
almost as manv of these as the North. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the Civil War, each pupil should 
read the fourth number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History." 
See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Explain briefly how the 
difference in the topography, climate, and soil of the North and South 
was the main or fundamental cause of the American Civil War. Begin- 
ning with the Missouri Compromise, explain briefly the political events 
which led directly to this war. Explain carefully how the South in two 
respects had an advantage of the North at the beginning of the Civil 
War. After the war began, why was the North able to secure ample 
military and other supplies, and why was the South unable to do so? 
Compare the Union states with the Confederate states in regard to popu- 
lation, and explain the causes of this difference. In what way was the 
difference in population of advantage to the North? Compare the North 
and the South in regard to means of transportation, and explain how 
the difference between the two sections in this respect affected the result 
of the Civil War. Discuss the financial resources of the North and South 
during the war, and explain how the difference between the two sections 
in this respect affected the result of the war. Discuss the industrial 
resources of the North and South, and explain how the difference be- 
tween the two sections in this respect affected the result of the war. 
Explain the general effect on the result of the war of the difference 
between the general resources of the North and South. 

SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain the two views which had been held regarding the right of 
secession. What is your opinion on this question? Explain very care- 
fully those principles of the Constitution which indicate that no state 
had the legal or constitutional right to secede. Explain what is meant 
by the natural right of a person to defend and protect his life and 
liberty. Assuming that no state could secede or withdraw from the Union 
in accordance with the Constitution, by what right can the secession of 
the southern states be justified? What did the southern people believe 
the North wished to do in regard to their rights and liberties? Explain 
how this belief would justify the action of the southern people in regard 
to the war. Explain why the admission of California to the Union as 



Questions and Topics 259 

a free state and the result of the struggle in Kansas made the southern 
leaders anxious to withdraw from the Union. Why did the southern 
leaders decide to bring about secession when Lincoln was elected Presi- 
dent? Discuss the secession of the southern states and the formation 
of the Confederate States of America. 

What was the attitude of the Confederacy toward the national prop- 
erty within its borders? What was Lincoln's attitude toward this prop- 
erty? What was his attitude as to the legal right of a state to secede? 
What did he declare his policy would be on these questions? Why was 
the Confederacy bound to oppose his policy? Why were these two 
views sure to lead to war? Describe the fall of Fort Sumter. What 
effect did the fall of this fort have on Lincoln and on the people of 
the North? Explain the effect Lincoln's call for soldiers had on the 
people of the Confederacy and on the people of some of those slave 
states which had not seceded. Describe the battle of Bull Run. What 
effect did this battle have on the national government? What effect 
did it have on the people of the North? What effect did it have on 
the people of the Confederacy? 

CAMPAIGNS 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Why cannot the campaigns of the Civil War be discussed very fully 
in a history of the United States for school use? What larger history 
will you be able to read on the battles and campaigns of the Civil War? 

What was the general object of the national government in the war? 
What armies did it organize? What work in the war was assigned to 
each of these armies? What was the general object of the Confederacy 
in this war? What armies did it organize? What work were these 
armies expected to do? In what respect did the Army of Northern Vir- 
ginia differ from the other armies? Describe the character and ability 
of General Lee. What will each of the campaigns outlined in this his- 
tory include? 

Give a rather full discussion of the first advance on Richmond. 
(Discussing a battle as used in these questions means to. state the con- 
ditions or circumstances that led to the battle, describe the battle, state 
the results, and give the importance of these results.) Discuss the 
battles of Bull Run, Antietam, and Fredericksburg. Give a careful ex- 
planation of Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. Explain the proclama- 
tion which he issued regarding slavery, on January i, 1863. Explain 
carefully just how and to what extent these proclamations affected 
slavery. Why did Lincoln free the slaves in the Confederacy? In what 
way did this affect the war? Explain Lincoln's plans regarding slavery 



260 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

in the loyal free states, and state with what success it met. Discuss the 
battles of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. Why was the battle of Gettys- 
burg a serious defeat for the Confederacy? Discuss the general results 
of the Eastern Campaign. Why was the Army of the Potomac not more 
successful in accomplishing what it was expected to accomplish? (At 
this point each pupil should draw a map that will give a clear and com- 
plete idea of the Eastern Campaign.) 

Describe the character and ability of General Grant. Describe the 
character and ability of General Sherman. What can you say about 
Thomas, Sheridan, and other Union commanders of the West? Why 
was it important for the Union armies to capture Fort Henry and Fort 
Donelson? Describe the capture of these two forts. Discuss the battle 
of Pittsburg Landing. What other cities did the Union army capture 
soon after this battle? Why was it valuable for the national government 
to secure possession of New Orleans? Give a rather full discussion 
of the capture of this city. Discuss the battles of Perryville and Mur- 
freesboro. Compare carefully the result of the Western Campaign for 
1862 with the result of the Eastern Campaign for this same year. Give 
a full discussion of the capture of Vicksburg. Give a full discussion 
of the battles of Chickamauga and Chattanooga. Compare carefully the 
result of the campaign in the West for the year 1863 with the result of 
the campaign in the East of that year. Explain what effect the Western 
Campaign had on the reputation of Grant and his position in the army. 
In considering the contest between Grant and Lee in the East, what 
conditions should receive careful consideration? (At this point each 
pupil should draw a map giving a clear and complete idea of the Western 
Campaign.) 

What were Grant's plans for the war after he became Commander in 
Chief? Discuss the capture of Atlanta. Discuss the contest between 
Thomas and Hood. Discuss Sherman's "March to the Sea." What did 
Sherman do after he had captured Savannah? Give a careful discussion 
of Grant's campaign in the East from May 4 to June 12, 1864. What 
did Grant do after he decided that he could not capture Richmond by 
direct advance? What was the result of Lee's attempt to draw Grant 
away from the siege at Petersburg and Richmond? Describe the siege 
of Petersburg and Richmond. Discuss the surrender of the Army of 
Northern Virginia. (At this point each pupil should draw a map giving 
a clear and complete idea of the campaigns of 1864-1865.) 

THE WORK OF THE NAVY 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain why the Confederacy could not supply enough war material 
for its armies and manufactured goods for its people. Explain fully 



Questions and Topics 261 

why the national government was so very anxious to blockade the Con- 
federate ports. What was absolutely necessary in order to blockade these 
ports? Describe the condition of the American navy at the beginning 
of the Civil War. Describe its condition at the end of that war. To 
what extent was the North successful in blockading the Confederate 
ports? Explain how this hastened the end of the war. Explain in what 
way the navy gave direct assistance to the Union army in its land 
campaigns. 

What is a commerce destroyer? What was the object of the Con- 
federates in building and equipping these vessels? Why did the English 
government permit these vessels to be built in England? Discuss the 
Geneva Award. Explain in what way these Confederate commerce 
destroyers did a great injury to the American shipping industry in addition 
to the value of the ships which they actually destroyed. Describe the 
Virginia (Merrimac) and the Monitor. What was the result of the 
first day's work of the Virginia? What effect did this have on the 
national government and on the people of the North? Describe the battle 
between the Virginia and the Monitor. What was the effect of this 
battle on the future construction of war vessels? 

RESULTS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

State and explain some of the main results of the Civil War. Explain 
why the war tended to unify the nation. Give some illustrations that 
tend to prove this. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Give a careful comparison and discussion of the resources of the 
Union and Confederate states. Discuss secession and the right of seces- 
sion. Discuss the fall of Fort Sumter and the first battle of Bull Run. 
Discuss the scope and nature of the campaigns of the Civil War. Give 
a full discussion of the Eastern Campaign. Give a full discussion of 
the Western Campaign. Give a full discussion of the campaign of 1864- 
1865. Discuss the work of the navy in the Civil War. Discuss the 
results of the war. 



RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND 
EXPANSION 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SECEDED STATES 

I Relation of the Seceded States to the National 

Government 
D. 578 ; Mc. 427 ; Ma. 386 ; G. 374-375 

II Death of Lincoln : His Character and Ability 

D. 579-581; Mc. 427-430; G. 367-368; T. 390-393; 
M. 338 

III Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson 

D- 578-579. 581-584; Mc. 429-431. 439; Ma. 386-388; 
G. 375-376; T. 392-395. 402; M. 338-341 

IV Reconstruction Policy of Congress 

D. 584-586; Mc. 430-431; Ma. 388-390; G. 376-380; 
T. 392-394; M. 338-339 

V Some Results of Reconstruction 

D. 586-587; Mc. 431; Ma. 390-396; G. 380-383; T. 
394-395; M. 339-341 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Political Methods 

D. 588-590; Ma. 405; G. 414, 421-422; T. 417, 427- 
428, 451 ; M. 357, 363, 376-377. 381 

II Political Parties 

D. 591-592; Mc. 439, 442-448, 462-470, 475-476, 484- 
486; Ma. 396-402, 403-404, 406, 408, 411, 414, 415; 
G. 385, 411, 428; T. 395-396, 408-409, 413. 416- 
419, 434-436, 447. 452-455. 475-477. 501-502 



Financial and Industrial Legislation 263 

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION 

I Financial Legislation 

1. The National Debt and the National Banking 

System 
D. 593-594; Mc. 421; T. 364 

2. Resumption of Specie Payment 

D. 594-595 ; Mc. 420, 437-438, 445-446 ; Ma. 398- 
400, 403 ; G. 407-408, 412-413 ; T. 361-362, 414, 

425 ; M. 355, 356 

3. Gold and Silver Standards 

D. 595-596; Mc. 448-449. 467, 471-472, 485; Ma. 
412; T. 422-423, 448, 456, 475, 500; M. 349- 
350, 374, 378, 403 

II Tariff Legislation 

D- 596-597; Mc. 419-420, 466, 473, 476; Ma. 408, 
409, 413, 415; G. 425-427; T. 429, 441-442, 446- 
447, 472 ; M. 373, 380, 383 

III Industrial Combinations 

1. Corporations, Trusts and Labor Organisations 

D. 597-598; Mc. 459-461, 464; Ma. 439-442; 
G. 408-410, 417, 427; T. 438-439» 473; M. 
363-368 

2. Laws Relating to Corporations, Trusts and Other 

Organisations 
D. 598-599; Mc. 443-444, 465; T. 437-438; M. 
359» 365, 370 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 
I Purchase of Alaska, 1867 

D. 600; Mc. 450-451 ; Ma. 395; G. 404-405; T. 397; 
M. 342 



264 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

II Treaty of Washington, 1871 

D. 600-601; Mc. 450; Ma. 395-396; T. 405-407; M. 
352 

III Application of the Monroe Doctrine 

1. The French in Mexico, 1861-1867 

D. 601 ; Mc. 449-450 ; Ma. 394 ; G. 364 ; T. 
398-399 

2. The Venezuela Boundary, i8py 

D. 601-602; Mc. 474; Ma. 414; G. 427-428; T. 
477-478; M. 381-382 

IV Growth of Arbitration 

1. Application of the Principles of Arbitration 

D. 602-604; T. 445, 455, 473; M. 379 

2. The Hague Tribunal, i8pQ 

(To be discussed by the teacher.) 
D. 603; M. 403 

V The Spanish-American War, 1898 

1 . Causes 

D. 604; Mc. 476-477; Ma. 446-450; G. 430-431; 
T. 479-485; M. 388-390 

2. Campaigns 

(a) Naval Warfare 

D. 604-605 ; Mc. 477-480 ; Ma. 450-453 ; G. 
431-435; T. 486-489; M. 391-393 

(b) The War on Land 

D. 605 ; Mc. 479-480 ; Ma. 452 ; G. 433-434 ; 
T. 489-492; M. 393-395 

3. Results 

(a) Territorial 

D. 605-606; Mc. 480-483; Ma. 454-456; G. 
435; T. 494-495. 497-5oo; M. 395-398 



Institiitiunal Life ^65 

(b) Political 

D. 606; Mc. 483; Ma. 455, 457, 460; G. 
435-436; T. 495-496; M- 396-398 

VI The Isthmian Canal 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 
D. 606-607; Ma. 461-462; M. 404 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

I Industrial Conditions 
D. 608 

I. Inipro-i'cd Means of Transportation and 
Cominunication 

D. 608-610; Mc. 434-435. 456; Ma. 415-417. 41/- 
418; G. 399-400, 440; T. 396-397. 399-401, 
410, 414, 464; M- 341-342. 344-346 

2. Other Inventions and Discoveries 

D. 610-61 1 ; Mc. 459 ; Ma. 420-422, 434-438 ; G. 
403-404; T. 464; M. 349-351 

3. Manufactures and Agrictdture 

D. 611-613; Mc. 454, 457, 459; Ma. 418-424, 426- 
427; G. 388-390; T. 415, 464; M. 347, 351, 
373. 375. 400 

4. Commerce and Population 

D. 613-615; G. 393-396; T. 464, 500; M. 383- 
384, 405 

5. The Nezv South 

D. 615-616; Mc. 454; Ma. 428-434; G. 385-392; 
T. 432-434. 465 ; M. 360-362 

6. The Development of the Nezv West 

D. 616-618, Mc. 454-458; G. 393-402; T. 465; 
M. 381 



266 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

II Social Conditions 

D. 618-619; Mc. 460; Ma. 431-432; T. 439-440, 461 

III Education 

1. Nature of Development 

D. 619-621 ; Ma. 432, 442-446; G. 390, 441-444; 
T, 466-471 ; M. 402 

2. The Public Elementary School System 

D. 621-622 

3. The Public High School System 

D. 622; Ma. 444; G. 442 

4. Universities, Colleges and Special Schools 

D. 623 ; Ma. 440 ; G. 442 



RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND 
EXPANSION 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SECEDED STATES 

I Relation of the Seceded States to the National 

Government 

When the Civil War closed, the governments of the Confed- 
eracy and of the states forming the Confederacy were com- 
pletely broken up, and the nation was confronted with the 
serious problem of restoring the South to its proper political 
and constitutional relations to the national government. In 
order to restore these states to their proper places it was 
necessary first to determine into just what relation to the 
national government they had been placed by secession. 
Some, among whom were Lincoln and Johnson, held that 
states could not secede and therefore the southern states 
had never left the Union; that the attempted secession had 
merely had the effect of destroying the constitutional privil- 
eges of those taking part; that these privileges might be 
restored through the pardoning power of the President; 
that as soon as state governments were re-established these 
states could resume their former places in the Federal gov- 
ernment. Others maintained that secession had reduced the 
southern states to the condition of territories, and that Con- 
gress could manage these territories just as it pleased. The 
view which prevailed ultimately was a medium one, — that the 
southern states had not lost their statehood, but that they 
had lost their constitutional rights as states, and that Congress 
had the power to restore these rights at its discretion. 

II Death of Lincoln : His Character and Ability 

In the midst of the rejoicing over the termination of the 
war, Lincoln was shot down by a half-crazed sympathizer of 
the South. In some respects he is the most remarkable man 



268 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

in American history. Born in abject poverty and raised in 
a wilderness, by his energy he raised himself to the highest 
place in the nation. A man of lofty character and ability, 
and possessed of a great amount of common sense, he car- 
ried the nation through the greatest crisis in its history. 

III Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson 

Lincoln, acting on his theory regarding the political rela- 
tion of the seceded states to the national government, issued 
a proclamation in December, 1863, in which, with some 
exceptions, he promised to pardon all those in rebellion who 
would lay down their arms and take an oath to support the 
Constitution and all laws or proclamations concerning the 
emancipation of slaves. He also promised that a new state 
government might be organized in a seceded state as soon as 
the number of persons taking the oath in that state was one 
tenth as large as the number that had voted in i860, and 
that such state would then be given full recognition by the 
national government. Four states reorganized upon this 
basis. After Lincoln's death the same policy was pursued 
by Johnson in reconstructing the remaining seceded states, 
but his work was not allowed to stand by Congress which 
was determined to have a voice in the reconstruction. 

IV Reconstruction Policy of Congress 

The Emancipation Proclamation had freed the slaves only 
in the seceding states. In order to abolish slavery throughout 
the Union the Thirteenth Amendment was proposed by Con- 
gress in January, 1865, and was ratified by the necessary 
number of states during the year and proclaimed in force in 
December. Many of the southern legislatures deemed it 
necessary to enact certain laws for the control of the freed- 
men. These laws restricted the freedom of the ex-slaves, 
and stirred up strong feeling in the North by causing people 
to believe that the South was trying to re-enslave the negro. 



Reconstruction of Seceded States "C'Q 

In order to protect and aid the ex-slaves, Congress, early 
in 1865, passed a measure which provided for the establish- 
ment of what was called the Freedmen's Bureau. The severe 
labor or vagrancy laws passed in many of the southern states 
in 1865 and 1866, led Congress to continue this bureau to 
1870, and to enlarge its duties and powers for the aid and 
protection of the freedmen. 

The radical Republicans had gradually gained control of 
Congress by 1866, and they were strongly opposed to John- 
son's lenient reconstruction policy. Congress proposed the 
Fourteenth Amendment, which made the negro a citizen. 
The southern states refused to ratify this amendment. Con- 
gress then passed a Reconstruction Act which required the 
seceded states to ratify this amendment before they might 
send Senators and Representatives to Congress. This com- 
pletely overthrew the reconstruction work done by Johnson. 
Six of the seceded states soon complied with this recon- 
structive act. The ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment 
by these six states completed the number necessary to make 
it a part of the constitution. In July, 1868, it was declared 
to be in full force and effect. 

The refusal of the southern states to ratify the Fourteenth 
Amendment giving the negro the rights of citizenship led to 
the passage by Congress of a series of acts limiting the 
President's power and placing severe restrictions on the 
southern states. The Reconstruction Act itself provided for 
the division of the southern states into military districts each 
under the command of an army officer. This act made it 
necessary for the seceded states to ratify the Fourteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution before being re-admitted to 
the Union, the Thirteenth Amendment having already been 
made a part of the Constitution, It also fixed such condi- 
tions upon the suffrage in these states that the voting lay 
almost altogether in the hands of former slaves and immi- 
grants from the North — " carpet baggers," as they were 
called — who flocked into the South after the war to profit 



270 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

by conditions there. By thus shutting out the southerners 
from voting, Congress secured in six of the states the forma- 
tion of conventions that would ratify the proposed 
amendment. 

In February, 1869, Congress proposed the Fifteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution. This gave the negro the 
right to vote. Those states which had refused to ratify the 
Fourteenth Amendment were now obUged to ratify both the 
Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments before they could 
re-enter the Union. Having been ratified by a sufficient 
number of states the Fifteenth Amendment went into effect 
in March, 1870. With its ratification by the last of the seced- 
ing states in 1 871, the political reconstruction of the South 
came to an end. 

V Some Results of Reconstruction 

Johnson's impeachment grew out of the reconstruction 
affair. He vetoed nearly all the measures enacted by Con- 
gress, and they were passed over his veto. Stanton, his 
Secretary of War, was opposed to him and he attempted to 
remove Stanton, contrary to a law passed by Congress. He 
was impeached and acquitted. 

The reconstruction acts are largely responsible for the race 
question in the South today. Under " carpet bag " and negro 
rule, backed up by the military arm of the government, the 
southern states were robbed of many millions of dollars. 
This and the enfranchisement of the negro has kept the race 
question alive. 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

T Political Methods 

The chief change in political methods since the Civil War 
is the introduction of the Australian ballot system and its 
adoption throughout the Union. This removed opportunity 
for fraud and protected the secrecy of the ballot. It was a 



Political Methods and Political Parties 271 

most important reform. A marked advance in the political 
methods is shown by the enaction of Civil Service Laws by 
which the appointment of many federal officers must be made 
on the basis of ability and not on the basis of political service. 
In 1 87 1 Congress passed a Civil Service Reform Act. This 
law gave the President the power of selecting a commission 
which should devise a better plan for the appointment of men 
to all offices under his control. Grant was anxious to enforce 
this law and better the Civil Service, but the members of 
Congress, desiring the offices for political purposes, refused 
to vote money to carry out the reform. As a result, it proved 
of little value. In 1883, Congress passed the "Pendleton Civil 
Service Act." This law gave the President the power of 
making appointments to office by means of examination, 
and officers thus appointed could not be removed so long as 
they did their work well. President Arthur placed a large 
number of offices under this civil service regulation, and 
President Cleveland increased the number. Many of the 
best citizens of the United States hope that this law marks the 
beginning of the downfall of the Spoils System. 

II Political Parties 

During most of the time since the Civil War, the Republi- 
can party has had control of the national government, but the 
Democratic party has always been strong enough to exert 
a powerful influence, and has twice succeeded in electing a 
president. Of the eleven presidents since 1864, Lincoln, 
Johnson, Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur, Harrison, Mc- 
Kinley and Roosevelt were Republicans, while Cleveland 
served two terms as a Democratic president. Immediately 
after the close of the war the chief political issue was the 
reconstruction of the seceded states. Since then the two 
main political issues between the Democratic and Republican 
parties have been the money question and the tarifif question, 
although, of course, there have been many minor issues. The 
many industrial and social questions have given rise to a num- 



272 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

ber of other political parties. Among these are the Populist 
or People's party, the Prohibition party, and the Socialist 
party. 

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION 
I Financial Legislation 

I. The National Debt and the National Banking System 

The finances of the national government were in a bat! 
state at the beginning of the Civil War, the treasury beiui; 
entirely empty. Consequently the government was forced 
to begin borrowing money soon after the war began. T lu 
supply of gold was soon exhausted and Congress was 
forced to issue paper money. About $500,000,000 of this 
paper money was issued during the war, and it was made 
a legal currency for all kinds of business, although no one 
could require the government to exchange gold or silver 
for it. Besides this paper money, the government issued 
bonds to the value of more than $1,000,000,000. 

During the Civil War the National bank system of the 
United States was established. This system is entirely 
different from the United States Bank destroyed by Jack- 
son. It was established for the purpose of creating a 
market for the sale of United States bonds, in order that 
money might be secured to carry on the war. The law 
which established this system provides that not less than 
five persons, with a combined capital of not less than 
$100,000 may establish a national bank. They must invest 
a sum amounting to at least one third of their capital in 
United States bonds, and the government will then give 
them bank notes, not exceeding in value ninety per cent 
of the par value of these bonds. A tax levied by Congress 
on the notes of state banks caused most of them to become 
national banks, and thus the national government was able 
to sell large quantities of its bonds. The national banking 
system is now an important feature of the financial system 
of the United States. 



fiiiaticial and Industrial Legislation 273 

2. Resumption of Specie Payment 

During the Civil War gold and silver largely disappeared 
from circulation, and paper money was in use throughout 
the country. In order to bring the finances of the country 
back to a gold and silver basis, Congress passed a law in 
1864, which provided that the Treasury Department should 
pay out gold and silver in return for paper money, all 
the paper money thus secured to be destroyed. Within four 
years the amount of paper money in circulation was reduced 
from nearly $500,000,000 to $356,000,000. The destruction 
of so much paper currency caused a scarcity of money, 
and in response to the demand of the people, specie pay- 
ment was discontinued in 1868. In 1879 it was resumed 
and the finances of the country have ever since been on a 
hard money basis. 

3. Gold and Silver Standards 

Standard money is money that must be accepted in pay- 
ment for all debts, and the material out of which this money 
is made must be coined by the United States mints practi- 
cally free of charge for any one who takes the material 
to the mint and complies with the regulations. Until 1873 
both gold and silver were standard moneys in the United 
States, — that is, any one possessing either gold or silver 
could have it coined into money. In 1873 the coinage of 
silver as a standard circulating medium was partially dis- 
continued, and in 1876 the coinage of silver as a standard 
money was abolished. In 1878 it was again made a stan- 
dard money, but the amount the government could coin 
during each year was limited. The law providing for this 
is called the Bland Silver Bill. In 1890 Congress passed 
what is known as the Sherman Act. This law directed 
the Secretary of the Treasury to buy about $15,000,000 
worth of silver each year. After 1891 it was provided 
that the silver bought need not be coined, but silver certif- 
icates for 4,500,000 ounces of silver must be issued each 



274 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

month and these redeemed in gold and silver. In order 
to protect the gold reserve in the United States Treasury, 
the Sherman Act was repealed in Cleveland's second ad- 
ministration. In the spring of 1900 Congress passed a law 
which declared, in substance, that the gold standard would 
be maintained in the United States. 

II Tariff Legislation 

Tariff, as used in national legislation, is a tax levied on 
goods brought into the United States from another country. 
One of the main objects of a tariff is to obtain the money 
required for meeting the expenses of government and the 
payment of the national debt. Another object is to protect 
home industries. Many believe that tariff duties should be 
so levied as to protect the manufacturing and agricultural 
interests of the country. This means that all goods which can 
be produced in the United States should be required to pay 
an import duty so as to secure a better home market for 
home products and thus increase home production. On the 
other hand many believe that a protective tariff raises the 
price of goods and products and benefits only those who pro- 
duce the articles on which an import duty is levied. These 
people therefore believe that a tariff should be levied for the 
purpose of revenue only, and that tariff duties should be levied 
only on such articles as are used by the wealthier classes. The 
majority of the people of the United States, however, believe 
that, in addition to raising a revenue for the expenses of the 
government one of the main objects of tariff duties should be 
the protection of home industries. During the war high 
tariff rates were levied in order to raise money to meet the 
expenses of the war, and in order to protect the manufactur- 
ing interests which were being heavily taxed. Since the war 
the tariff has remained strongly protective in nature. The 
Wilson Bill, passed during Cleveland's second administration, 
modified the tariff in many respects, but it retained a large 
number of protective features. During McKinley's adminis- 



Financial and Industrial Legislation 275 

tration, a tariff with full protective features was restored, 
and is still in operation. The principle of a protective tariff 
is becoming more and more an accepted part of the economic 
policy of the United States. 

Ill Industrial Combinations 

I. Corporations, Trusts and Labor Organisations 

A corporation is an organization recognized by law, and 
empowered to transact a certain kind of business, as though 
it were one person. The wonderful industrial progress of 
the United States has made it possible for men to amass 
large fortunes. These fortunes, singly or in combinations, 
have been used for the purpose of building long railroad 
lines, developing large mining interests, and carrying on 
other great enterprises. They have often taken advantage 
of the great power which they possess in order to crush out 
smaller enterprises having less financial backing. A vast 
corporation often takes the place of many individual busi- 
ness concerns. For example, the Western Union Telegraph 
Company was organized in 1886 out of forty small tele- 
graph companies. Many lines of railroads have been com- 
bined into a few trunk lines. The Standard Oil Company 
has taken the place of any number of smaller oil companies. 
When great corporations were first organized they were 
brought into sharp competition with other corporations 
engaged in the same lines of business, and prices were 
kept at a low mark. The people received the benefit of 
this competition. The corporations soon learned that it was 
to their advantage to form combinations, thus avoiding 
competition with one another. Vast combines or trusts 
have now been formed in almost every line of business. 

In order to protect themselves against the combinations 
of capital referred to above, and to better their condition, 
many of the laboring people of the country have combined 
at different times and under various names. Most of 
these labor unions have united and formed state federations, 



276 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

and the state federations are represented in what is known 
as the American Federation of Labor, which exercises 
general control over nearly all the labor unions in the 
United States. By their combined efforts, the labor unions 
have shortened the hours of labor, raised wages and accom- 
plished many other things which, taken together with the 
natural advantages and great industrial development of the 
United States, have raised the condition of the American 
laborer above that of any other nation in the world. 

2. Lazvs Relating to Corporations, Tnists and Other 
Organizations 

The aggressive, and sometimes illegal methods of great 
corporations and trusts, and the recent unjust and un- 
American demands of some labor unions, constitute one of 
the greatest problems now before the American people for 
solution. Corporations and trusts and labor unions are no 
doubt beneficial and necessary to our industrial develop- 
ment, but it has become quite evident during the last few 
years that the great mass of the American people must see 
to it that they do not infringe upon, nor interfere with, 
the great principles of personal freedom and personal initia- 
tive in business and labor, which have made possible the 
great growth of the American nation. Already laws having 
this object in view have been passed by both the national 
and state legislatures. Among such laws is that known as 
the Interstate Commerce Act passed by Congress in 1887. 
This law provides for the supervision of railroads by a 
national commission whose duty it is to prevent unfair 
discrimination between shippers, and to prevent combina- 
tions formed for the purpose of destroying competition 
and raising prices. Among the laws passed with special 
reference to labor, are the Contract Labor Law, which pro- 
hibits any person in the United States from importing 
foreign laborers under contract, laws restricting Chinese 
immigration, and laws making eight hours a full day's 
labor in certain kinds of government employment. Li 



Vurcigu Relations 2?7 

1903 Congress created the new executive department of 
Commerce and Labor. JMany states have passed laws 
regulating railway fares, and restricting the powers and 
defining the duties of corporations and trusts. 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 
I Plrchase of Alaska, 1867 

In October of 1867 the United States purchased Alaska, 
a territory containing 590,000 square miles, from Russia 
lor about $7,000,000. At that time Alaska was thovight to 
be valuable only for its furs, fisheries and lumber, but valu- 
able mineral deposits have since been opened there, and it 
no doubt possesses other valuable resources. 

[I Treaty of Washington, 1871 

The treaty of Washington provided for the settlement by 
arbitration of the questions in dispute between the United 
States and Great Britain. These questions were : The dis- 
puted boundary line between British Columbia and the ter- 
ritory of Washington, the rights of American fishermen in 
Canadian waters, and the claim of the United States for 
damages for the destruction of American commerce during 
the Civil War by vessels fitted out in British ports. This 
last mentioned is known as the "Alabama Claims " and was 
settled by the board of arbitration which awarded $15,500,000 
damages to the United States. This treaty is important, 
because it is the first notable example of the voluntary arbi- 
tration by two great nations of questions in dispute. 

fll ArPLICATION OF THE jMONROE DoCTRINE 

I. The French in Mexico, 1861-186/ 

During the Civil War a French Army had been sent 
into Alexico, and a French Empire had been established 
with Maximilian, an Austrian Archduke, as Emperor. 



278 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

Soon after the close of the war, the Secretary of State 
intimated to the French government that the United States 
was now in a position to enforce the principles of the 
Monroe Doctrine, and the French soldiers were at once 
removed from Mexico. 

2. The Venezuelan Boundary, i8gy 

Great Britain and Venezuela could not agree upon the 
boundary between their territory in South America. Vene- 
zuela appealed to the United States and the United States 
asked Great Britain to submit the question to arbitration 
in accordance with the Monroe Doctrine. Great Britain 
claimed that the world had outgrown that doctrine. On 
receiving a note from the British government containing 
these views, Cleveland, with the authority of Congress, 
appointed a commission to determine the boundary in dis- 
pute. In a proclamation to Congress he stated that when 
the boundary line had been determined by the commission, 
the United States would fight if necessary in order to main- 
tain it, England then consented to have the matter sub- 
mitted to arbitration. The firm stand of Cleveland served 
as a notice to the world that the United States would 
strictly enforce the Monroe Doctrine. In 1902 several 
European powers blockaded some of the Venezuelan ports 
with a view of collecting debts due from Venezuela. 
Through the influence of this government the matter was 
referred to the Hague Tribunal. All of these incidents 
tended to show Europe that the American people were 
going to keep the Monroe Doctrine in force. It is perhaps 
recognized by Europe today more than ever before as a 
fixed principle in regard to the affairs of the New World. 

IV Growth of Arbitration 

r. Application of the Principles of Arbitration 

The principle of arbitration has for some time been em- 
ployed in the settling of domestic difficulties in the United 



Foreign Relations 279 

States, such as disputes between laborers and their em- 
ployers. This has been particularly effective in the settle- 
ment of great strikes which have threatened the various 
industries of the nation, and even in some cases the welfare 
of the whole nation. An instance of this latter kind may be 
found in the great coal strike of 1902-1903 in the Pennsyl- 
vania coal fields, which was settled by arbitration after 
causing great injury to industries and untold suffering 
among the people of the nation. As has been stated, the 
settlement of disputes between Great Britain and the 
United States by a board consisting of arbitrators appointed 
by outside nations was the first notable application of arbi- 
tration to international affairs. It marked a distinct 
advance in the settlement of international questions and 
has since become recognized as the best way in which to 
deal with many international difficulties. 

2. The Hague Tribunal, i8gg 

In 1899, at the suggestion of the Czar of Russia, dele- 
gates from twenty-six nations met at the Hague in 
Holland for the purpose of providing for a permanent 
Court of Arbitration for the settlement of difficulties be- 
tween nations without their going to war. The work of 
this conference met with the heartiest approval of the 
various nations of the world, and as a result the Hague 
Tribunal of Peace has been established. It is the object 
of this tribunal to settle all such questions arising between 
nations as may be submitted to it justly and fairly, and 
to thus promote the peace and welfare of the world. The 
United States has been among the foremost in urging the 
principles of arbitration. 

V The Spanish-American War^ 1898 

I. Causes 

The remote cause of this war was the Spanish mis-gov- 
ernment of her West Indian possessions, which caused con- 
tinual rebellion among the inhabitants and endangered 



280 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

American property interests there. Moreover the American 
people felt a great deal of sympathy for the people who 
were struggling to establish a republican government, and 
against whom a cruel and bloody warfare was being waged 
to crush this rebellion. The immediate cause of the war 
was the destruction of the American battleship Maine, in 
the harbor of Havana, with the loss of more than two 
hundred and fifty sailors. It has not yet been proven, but 
it was generally believed that the destruction of the vessel 
was due to the Spaniards. At any rate it served to arouse 
the people of the United States and led directly to the 
war for the independence of Cuba. 

2. Campaigns 

(a) Naval Warfare 

The American navy decided the success of the United 
States in this war. Two naval battles were fought, one 
ofif the southern coast of Cuba, and one in the Philippine 
Islands which belonged to Spain, and where a part of the 
Spanish navy was stationed. In these two battles the 
Spanish navy was practically destroyed, without the 
loss to the American forces of a single ship, and with the 
loss of but one man. With her navy destroyed, Spain 
could not hope to make any effective resistance on the 
land, either in the Philippines or in the West Indies. 

(b) The War on Land 

The chief land campaign of the war had for its object 
the capture of Santiago. Two vigorous battles were 
fought at El Caney and San Juan before the city was 
captured by the Americans. Another successful cam- 
paign was begun at Porto Rico, but was soon stopped 
by the declaration of peace. A third army was sent to 
the Philippines, where it aided in the capture of the chief 
city, Manila. 



Foreign Relations 281 

},. Results 

The war itj>l2lf was of comparatively little importance, 
but its results are of great importance to the United States. 
As an immediate result Cuba became independent of Spain 
and the United States gained considerable territory in the 
management of which she has entered upon some new 
policies. 

(a) Territorial Results 

By the treaty of peace after the close of the war the 
United States acquired the Philippine Islands, Guam, 
Porto Rico and other Spanish West Indian Islands, giv- 
ing Spain in return $20,000,000. This war had shown 
the military value of the Hawaiian Islands, and they were 
also annexed to the United States in 1898. The annex- 
ation of Hawaii had been proposed to the United States 
before, and would very likely have taken place in any 
event, but the war hastened it. 

(b) Political Results 

The political effect of this war is far reaching and 
may vitally affect the policy of the United States. If 
these possessions are treated as colonies, the United 
States may be compelled to mix in Asiatic and European 
affairs, thus to a certain extent abandoning the principle 
of neutrality established by Washington, to which the 
United States has always strictly adhered. Previous to 
the acquisition of this territory all of the country acquired 
by the United States had been practically unsettled, leav- 
ing for the American people the development of its 
resources and its preparation for becoming an integral 
part of the Union. Most of the territory acquired from 
Spain during the recent war is thickly populated, and if 
it be held as colonial possessions, and the constitution of 
the United States be not permitted to extend over it, 
a new principle will have entered into the American 



282 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

government. These questions belong to the future, and 
their solution will make some of\ the most important 
work of American statesmen. 

VI The Isthmian Canal 

As early as 1850 the building of a ship canal through some 
part of Central America was discussed, and a treaty made 
between England and America regarding the neutrality of 
such canal when built. From time to time treaties were made 
concerning a canal to be built through Central America, but 
nothing was accomplished. The Spanish-American war em- 
phasized the value of such a canal, and in 1901 the matter was 
taken up again. A second treaty was then made with Eng- 
land, guaranteeing the neutrality of the proposed canal, but 
giving the United States the right of ownership and defense. 
The construction of the canal was then taken up by Congress. 
Two routes were proposed, one by way of Nicaragua and the 
other by way of Panama. A large sum was appropriated 
for the construction of the canal and negotiations were at 
once begun with Colombia for a canal by way of Panama. 
Upon the rejection by Colombia of the treaty giving the 
United States the power to construct the canal, Panama 
revolted and established a republic which was at once recog- 
nized by the United States and the other leading nations. 
The United States succeeded in making very favorable ar- 
rangements with the government of Panama and the treaty 
arranged by representatives of the United States and Panama 
was promptly ratified by both governments in 1904, and 
work on the canal was at once begun. 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

The development of the institutional life of the United States 
since the Civil war has been remarkable, particularly along indus- 
trial lines. There has been very little change in the conditions 
of Government and Religion, except the natural development 



Institutional Life 283 

along lines laid down in the previous periods. Socially some ne^\ 
factors have entered jnto national life, and educationally the ad- 
vance of the nation has been marvelous. 

I Industrial Conditions 

The industrial progress of the United States since the 
Civil war has not been equalled in any other period of the 
world's history. This industrial development has affected the 
entire institutional life of the nation, and has made the 
United States the wealthiest nation in the world. 

I, Improved Means of Transportation and Conimunication 

The development of the United States in these respects 
during the last forty years is remarkable. In i860 there 
were 30,000 miles of railroads ; at the present time there 
are over 200,000 miles and new roads are constantly being 
built. In i860 there were no railways west of the Mis- 
souri river. The first line reaching the Pacific was com- 
pleted in 1869 and four other transcontinental lines have 
since been built, and, together with their branches, have 
penetrated every part of the West. The railroads have 
been a most important agency in national industrial and 
social development. Realizing this, the government has 
done much to encourage the building of railroads. For 
this purpose it has given to railroad companies more than 
200,000,000 acres of land and $60,000,000. In addition 
to railroads, street-car systems are in use in all the cities 
and even in the larger towns and in thickly populated sub- 
urban districts. The use of electricity as a motive power 
has caused great improvements in transportation. Great 
steamship lines have been organized, and transportation 
by water much improved. The successful laying of oceanic 
cables has been accomplished during this last period, and 
now nearly all parts of the civilized world are in close 
communication. The telephone, too, has been invented 
and perfected within the last thirty years. The effect of 



284 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

this j^reat advance in means of transportation and com- 
munication can hardly be overestipiated. It has aided 
the industrial growth of the nation by making it possible 
to develop the great natural resources of the country, 
especially of the interior part. It has also had a profound 
effect on the industrial development of the country by 
creating an immense home market for the products of all 
parts of the nation. If the railroads did not exist, a large 
share of the products of many parts of the United States 
would never find a market. The improved means of 
transportation and communication have also exerted a 
great and beneficial influence on the nation socially by 
bringing the people into closer touch, doing away with 
sectionalism, and thus promoting the growth of a true 
national life. 

2. Ot/icr Invoitions and Discoveries 

More inventions have been made during this period than 
in any other period in the world's history. These cover 
nearly every field of production and activity. The period 
is marked by the very rapid development of electricity 
as a power. The period is also remarkable from the stand- 
point of discoveries in the various branches of science. 

3. Manufactures and Agriculture 

In i860 the manufactured products of the United States 
were valued at $4,000,000,000. The estimated annual 
value of the present output from its factories is over 
$12,000,000,000, being greater than that of any other 
country in the world. The growth of the iron and steel 
industries is most remarkable. In i860 England led the 
world in the production of iron and steel. Now the United 
States is far in advance of that country. This is but a 
single instance of the rapid growth of manufacturing inter- 
ests in the United States. Over 5,000,000 people are em- 
ployed in her factories. Nearly all of her large cities are 



Institutional Life 285 

hives of industrial enterprise, and the products of her 
factories are carried to the markets of every country in 
the world. 

Agriculture continues to be one of the leading industries. 
The developing of the Middle \\'est and the Pacific Coast 
has placed the United States in the front rank of agricul- 
tural nations. The building of railroads and the exten- 
sion of irrigation have been important factors in this 
agricultural development. Stock raising has also become 
an important industry in the West. Immense amounts 
of food stufifs are raised and exported by the United 
States and they form one of the chief sources of the 
wealth of the country. The United States furnishes 80 
per cent of all the cotton raised in the world, and its 
annual exports of provisions, bread stuffs and cotton have 
a value of about $800,000,000. 

4. Commerce and Population 

The growth of commerce has kept pace with that of 
manufactures. On both the Atlantic and Pacific Coast 
are located great ship-building concerns, where not only 
American vessels, but also vessels of all kinds for foreign 
nations are built. The products of American factories and 
farms are carried to all parts of the world in American 
vessels. The total foreign commerce of the United States 
exceeds that of any other nation, and her domestic com- 
merce is several times greater than that of any other 
nation. 

At the present time (1905) the population of the United 
States, not including Alaska and the territory secured as 
a result of the Spanish-American War, is about 80,000,000, 
or about two and a half times what it was at the close 
of the Civil War. 

The immense foreign immigration since the Civil War 
has had a most important effect on industrial conditions 
in the United States. Without the labor of these immi- 



286 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

grants many of the great industries could not have been 
built up. Their labor has been valuable particularly in 
the building of railroads and in tne working of mines. 
Of late years, however, the immigrants have been of a 
lower class, and have come in such numbers that many 
believe that the continued practically unliriiited admission 
of immigrants is becoming a serious menace to our insti- 
tutions, and that Congress should pass stringent laws 
concerning immigration. 

5. The Nezsj South 

The abolition of slavery produced a revolution in the 
labor system of the South. Before the War, as has been 
stated, slavery had been the corner stone of southern 
society. With the emancipation of the slaves this society 
passed away, and on its ruins rose a " New South," having 
free labor as its foundation. The South has gained greatly 
by this change. The production of cotton has more than 
doubled since i860. At that time the capital invested in 
southern manufacturing industries was so small as to 
scarcely require mentioning. There is now invested in 
machine-shops, mills and workshops more than $50,000,000 
of capital. Thousands of miles of railroads have been 
built. Coal and iron mines have been opened up. Atlanta, 
Chattanooga, New Orleans, Augusta, Birmingham, and 
other southern cities now have manufacturing establish- 
ments which rival those of the North and West. 

6. The Development of the Neiv West 

The discovery of gold and silver and other mineral 
mines in the Rocky Mountains and in the country lying 
west of these mountains early caused a great stream of 
immigration to start westward. At first the covered wagon 
was the principal means of transportation. Later came 
the overland stage-coach, and later still railroads reaching 
to the Pacific. These railways have had more influence 



Institutional Life 287 

on the development of the West than any other single 
factor. The recent discoveries of immense oil fields in 
California promise to make the Pacific Coast a more im- 
portant manufacturing region, by supplying a cheap fuel, 
the lack of which has been a serious drawback to manu- 
facturing interests on the coast. The utilization of the 
mountain streams by converting their force into electric 
power is also furnishing cheap motive power. Another 
important factor in the development of the West has been 
the extensive use of irrigation by which arid lands have 
been made fertile, and homes for thousands of settlers 
have been created. The fact that the national govern- 
ment has decided to assist in reclaiming western lands by 
irrigation should result in greatly increasing the pro- 
ductive farming area of the West. 

II Social Conditions 

There have been many changes in the social conditions 
during this time. Some of these changes have been for 
the better and some for the worse. The more important 
factors that have tended to change and modify the social 
conditions of the nation during this period are the negro 
question, the immense foreign immigration, the great in- 
dustrial advance with the resulting creation of vast private 
fortunes, and the improvement in means of transportation 
and communication. The last factor has done more than 
anything else to break down localism in manners and cus- 
toms, and to unify the social life of the nation. The com- 
ing to the United States of so many of the worst classes 
of Europe is having an undesirable effect on social condi- 
tions, because these immigrants congregate in large cities 
and do not readily assimilate American customs and ideals. 
The negro question which was created by the emancipation 
and enfranchisement of the negroes, more vitally concerns 
the South. The solution of this question rests largely with 
the people of the South, and in this work they deserve the 



288 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

sympathy and co-operation of every citizen of the nation. 
Industrial education, such as is beinp- carried on under the 
direction of Boolcer T. Washington, at the Tuskeegee 
Institute in Alabama, promises to be the most important 
factor in the solution of this problem. The great industrial 
development of the nation has tended, on the whole, to ad- 
vance social conditions, because it has enabled the great 
mass of the people to have better homes, better clothes, 
better food, and more luxuries, and to enjoy more fully 
the pleasures of social life. On the other hand the tendency 
of large private fortunes is to create class distinctions based 
on wealth. While there are some undesirable tendencies 
and conditions in the social life of the nation, the great 
improvement along industrial lines has caused and is 
causing a steady improvement in social conditions. 

Ill Education 

1. Nature of Development 

In no respect has the advance of the United States since 
the Civil War been more marked than in the matter of edu- 
cation, and especially is this true in the South. This great 
advance in education throughout the United States is seen 
in the present condition of the public school system and in 
numerous institutions of higher education ; in the num- 
ber and quality of newspapers and magazines ; in institutes, 
conventions and clubs of various kinds, which have for 
their object mutual improvement; and in the number of 
museums, libraries and art galleries. 

2. The Public Elementary School System. 

The free elementary public school system as it exists in 
the United States to-day has been built up and developed 
almost entirely since the Civil War. There were public 
schools before the Civil War and they were doing excel- 
lent work, but there were not many free public schools be- 



Institutional Life 289 

fore that time and in efficiency and equipment those 
schools were far inferior to those of to-day. Just before the 
Civil War the people were beginning to demand free pub- 
lic schools as a right, and this soon resulted in placing the 
general management of the school system under the control 
of state school officials and in the levying of state school 
taxes. This was a new principle in education, for before, 
such matters had been left almost entirely in the hands of 
city and county officials. At the present time the constitu- 
tions of nearly all the States make ample provision for the 
maintenance of the free public schools. Nearly all of the 
states west of the Alleghany miountains, under the direction 
of Congress, set aside, at the time of their organization, 
certain lands in each township for the support of public 
schools. In most cases these lands have been sold, and 
the money obtained from their sale constitutes a school 
fund, the interest on which is used for school purposes. 
When additional money is needed it is raised by direct local 
and state taxation. 

Although each state has its own school system, and 
there is a wide difference as to the length of school terms, 
qualifications and salaries of teachers, courses of study and 
similar matters, there are strong forces at work which 
tend to make the schools uniform throughout the United 
States. Among these forces are state and national edu- 
cational associations, and the National Bureau of Educa- 
tion, the latter being under the direct control of the national 
government. 

3. The Public High School System 

The advance in high school education during this period, 
has been as great and as important as the improvement in 
the elementary schools. The whole public high school sys- 
tem has been developed largely within the last forty years, 
the number of high schools doubling within the last ten 
years. The high schools have been aptly termed the col- 



290 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

leges of the common people. Their service in strengthening 
the work of the elementary schools and in giving the 
young people of all classes an opportunity for a higher edu- 
cation, can hardly be overestimated. Many of the public 
high schools in the United States to-day offer courses of 
study of as high grade as did Yale and Harvard a hundred 
years ago. 

4. Universities, Colleges and Special Schools 

The growth of the state universities is one of the most 
notable features of the advance in education. Nearly every 
state in the Union has established an institution of this 
kind, supported by taxation, grants of public land, and ap- 
propriations by the legislatures. Several great institutions 
of learning and numerous smaller colleges have been es- 
tablished throughout the United States by private individ- 
uals. These institutions of higher education are havii^g 
an important effect on American character and ideals. 

There have been established within the United States 
during this period many special schools, among which are 
normal schools for the training of teachers ; medical schools 
for the training of physicians and surgeons ; law schools 
for the training of lawyers ; and many other technical 
schools for the training of men and women along profes- 
sional and technical lines. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CONFEDERATE STATES 
Questions for Class Recitations 

What was the condition of government in the seceded states at the 
close of the Civil War? Explain the question which this condition 
brought before the national government. Explain carefully each of the 
three views which were held regarding the relation of the seceded states 
to the national government. To what extent did Lincoln carry out his 
views, and what did he say his future policy in the whole matter would 
be? Describe the death of Lincoln. How was his death received by the 
northern people? Explain why the news of his death was received with 
sincere sorrow and regret by the entire civilized world. Why was his 
death an especially great loss to the South? Describe the early life of 
Lincoln. Discuss Lincoln's character and ability. 

Compare Lincoln's and Johnson's policies of reconstruction. Explain 
how and to what extent Johnson carried out his policy. Read and ex- 
plain the Thirteenth Amendment. Explain the nature of the laws which 
the new state legislatures of the South passed for the control of the 
negroes. Why did the South pass these laws? What effect did the 
passage of these laws have on the northern people? Explain carefully 
how Congress, when it met in December, 1865, treated the reconstruction 
policy of Johnson. Explain the creation, power, and purpose of the 
Freedmen's Bureau. Explain the relation and feeling which existed 
between Congress and Johnson over the Freedmen's Bureau and other 
matters of reconstruction. Read and explain the provisions of the Four- 
teenth Amendment. Explain carefully how this amendment was re- 
ceived in the South, and why it was so received. By this time what 
was the attitude of the people of the North on the question of recon- 
struction? Explain carefully the plan of reconstruction provided for in 
the Reconstruction Acts. How did the seceded states receive these acts? 
Read and explain the provisions of the Fifteenth Amendment. In what 
way was this amendment connected with the end of the political recon- 
struction of the South ? 

Discuss the impeachment of President Johnson. Explain how the 
reconstruction policy of Congress enabled northern immigrants and 
the negroes to control for a time some of the state legislatures of the 
South. How did the southern people feel about this? How would you 
have felt? Explain the relation between the race question and the recon- 
struction of the seceded states. Give your opinion as to the wisdom 
of making the Fifteenth Amendment a part of the Constitution. 



292 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain the Australian ballot system. Explain carefully why the 
adoption of this system was a very important advance in political 
methods. Why is it very important for the people to take an active 
part in the selection of candidates for office? How may they do this? 
Describe the Spoils System, and explain carefully the bad results of this 
system. Explain carefully the object of the Civil Service Laws. Give 
the history of these laws in the United States and what they have 
accomplished. 

Discuss the leaders and principles of the Republican party since the 
Civil War. Discuss the leaders and principles of the Democratic party 
during this period. Discuss the leading issues between these two parties 
during this period. Discuss the conditions causing the formation of 
other parties. 

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION 
Questions for Class Recitations 

What was the condition of the finances of the national government 
at the beginning of the Civil War? Why did the government find it 
necessary to issue paper money? What is a national bond? Why did 
the government issue bonds during the war? Describe the national bank 
system. Why was it created? What action did Congress take against 
the state banks? What is specie payment? When the paper money 
was first issued, could it be exchanged for gold and silver money? What 
effect did this have on the use of gold and silver money in business 
affairs? Explain what is meant by the resumption of specie payment 
in 1864. What effect did this have on the amount of paper money in 
circulation? After 1864, when and for what reason was specie payment 
discontinued, and when was it resumed? Explain fully what is meant 
by standard money. Up to 1873, what was standard money in the 
United States? Explain carefully how silver since 1873 has gradually 
lost its position as a full standard money. 

Explain carefully the two main objects for which tariff duties are 
levied. Explain the two different views regarding the value of the pro- 
tective principle of the tariff. What is your opinion as to the merits 
of the protective system? Beginning with the Civil War, trace and 
explain the tariff legislation of the nation. 

What is a corporation? For what purposes are corporations organ- 
ized? What is a trust? Give some examples of vast corporations or 
trusts. In what ways are they beneficial, and in what ways are they 



Questions and Topics 293 

harmful? What is a labor union? Why were labor unions organized? 
In what way have they benefited the working classes? What is meant 
by personal freedom and personal initiative in business and industry? 
(This question should receive a most careful discussion by teacher and 
pupils.) Explain carefully how freedom in business and industry and 
fair, open, and honest industrial competition are principles that are abso- 
lutely necessary to the prosperity and happiness of the American people. 
Why is it necessary that the people see to it that great combinations do 
not interfere with these principles ? Explain in what ways certain com- 
binations have done so or have threatened to do so already. Describe 
those laws which have already been passed for the purpose of restricting 
the powers and defining the duties of corporations, trusts, and other 
combinations. 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 
Questions for Class Recitations 

How did the United States secure Alaska? Describe the territory. 
Of what value is it to the United States? 

Explain how the seizure of the Confederate commissioners on the 
British vessel Trent created a strong feeling among the northern people 
against Great Britain. Why was the government of the United States 
not very anxious after the Ci\il War to settle the disputes between 
this country and England? Discuss the provisions of the Treaty of 
Washington. Explain the final results secured by the provisions of this 
treaty. Why is this treaty of special importance? 

Describe the conditions in Mexico during the Civil War. Explain 
how the principles of the Monroe Doctrine applied to these conditions. 
Discuss the Venezuelan boundary dispute, and the application of the 
Monroe doctrine to this case. How did the Monroe Doctrine apply to 
the recent blockade of the ports of Venezuela? What effect did all 
this have on the Monroe Doctrine? 

(The teacher should consult magazines covering this period for 
material on this topic. The American Reviezv of Reviews is especially 
valuable.) What is meant by arbitration? Describe the appointing of 
a board of arbitration. Give examples of its use in settling difificulties 
between laborers and their employers in the United States. Of what 
value is arbitration in cases of this kind? Give instances of the applica- 
tion of the principle of arbitration to international affairs affecting the 
United States. Discuss the establishment of the Hague Peace Tribunal. 
Give a history of this tribunal and its work. What can you say of its 
probable value to mankind? 

Discuss the causes of the Spanish-American War. Discuss the lead- 
ing naval battles of this war, and discuss their effect. Describe the 



294 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

campaign for the capture of Santiago. (Each pupil should draw a map 
illustrating the important battles of this war.) Discuss the terms of 
the treaty of peace. Tell all you can about the character and conditions 
of the territory acquired by the United States through this treaty. How 
did the Spanish- American War affect the annexation of Hawaii? (Each 
pupil should draw a map showing the territorial acquisitions of the 
United States as a result of this war.) How is the territory acquired 
by this war governed at the present time? Compare the government 
of Hawaii with that of the Philippine Islands. Compare the conditions 
in the territory acquired from Spain with those in the territory previously 
acquired by the United States. Why was a different policy adopted in 
the government of this new territory from that followed in the organiza- 
tion and government of the other territory of the United States? In 
what way, if in any, do the results of the Spanish-American War tend 
to violate the principle of American neutrality established by Washing- 
ton? In what way may the Spanish-American War cause a new prin- 
ciple to enter into the government of the United States? 

Tell all you can of the history of the Panama Canal. (Each pupil 
should draw a map showing the two routes proposed.) Discuss the 
importance of this canal, and estimate its probable value to the United 
States and to the commerce of the world. 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Discuss the nature of the changes in the institutional life which have 
taken place since the Civil War. Explain very carefully why the period 
between 1828 and i860 will always stand unique and unrivaled in 
the history of the world as regards means of transportation and com- 
munication. (This last question deserves very careful consideration.) 
Describe the nature and value of those new inventions and discoveries 
which have affected means of transportation and communication since 
i860. Describe the increase in railroad mileage since i860. Explain 
carefully how this wonderful growth of the railways of the nation has 
affected industrial and social conditions. Compare the number and nature 
of the inventions made since the Civil War with those made during the 
period before that war. How did the people of the United States continue 
to compare with the people of other nations in regard to the making 
of inventions and discoveries? Describe the inventions made for the 
practical application of electric power. What is your opinion concerning 
the future use of electricity for practical purposes? 

Explain carefully how the invention of new machinery and the in- 
creased production of iron, copper, gold, and silver goods have caused 
the rapid development of the mineral resources of the nation. In what 



Questions and Topics 295 

way have the new inventions and the increased production of useful 
machinery caused an increased production of manufactured goods and 
agricultural products? (This question deserves very careful considera- 
tion.) Describe briefly the growth of agriculture during this period. 
Describe briefly the growth of manufactures during this period. What 
is your opinion regarding the future growth in the United States of the 
agricultural and manufacturing industries? Explain the relation between 
the growth in the farming and manufacturing industries and the growth 
in commerce, cities, and population. Compare the foreign commerce of 
the United States with the foreign commerce of other nations. Discuss 
the domestic commerce of the United States, explaining the causes of 
its growth, and comparing it with the domestic and foreign commerce 
of other nations. Compare the population of the United States in i860 
with its population in 1905. What have been the causes of this rapid 
growth? Describe the growth of the cities during this period. Explain 
carefully what have been the causes of this growth. Why is this unusual 
tendency to crowd to the cities thought to be against the best interests 
of the nation? 

Compare the growth of the South during this period with her growth 
during the period before the Civil War. What were the causes of this 
change? How did the abolition of slavery afl'ect the building of rail- 
ways in the South? How did it affect the growth of manufactories and 
the production of cotton? How did it affect the growth of population? 
Compare the growth of the West during this period with the early settle- 
ment and growth of the other sections of the United States. Compare 
the population of this western country in i860 with its population in 
1905. Explain carefully the growth of the West in means of transporta- 
tion and communication, and in wealth and commerce. What can you 
say as regards the probable future growth of the western country? 

Explain carefully each of the more important factors that have 
brought about changes in the social conditions of the nation since the 
Civil War. Explain how improvement in means of transportation and 
communication affected social conditions during this period. What effect 
has the immigration of undesirable people from the nations of Europe 
had upon the social conditions of the nation? Explain the importance 
of the race question to the social conditions of the nation. How has the 
great industrial growth of the nation affected social conditions? What 
is your opinion concerning the continued improvement in social conditions? 

How does the growth of education in the United States since the 
Civil War compare with the industrial growth ? What things give evi- 
dence of this educational growth? Explain carefully how this great 
educational advance indicates a bright future for the nation. In what 
vital way is the question of teachers' salaries related to the growth of 
education? Give a very careful discussion of the growth of the elemen- 



296 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

tary public school system. Give a very careful discussion of the growth 
of the public high school system. Give a very careful discussion of the 
growth of colleges, universities, and special schools. What is the especial 
value to the nation of these schools of higher and special education? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the relation of the Confederate states to the national gov- 
ernment at the end of the Civil War. Discuss the death, character, and 
ability of Lincoln. Discuss the reconstruction policy of Johnson. Discuss 
the reconstruction policy of Congress, including a careful discussion of 
the results of this policy. Discuss the changes in political methods which 
took place during this period. Discuss the political parties of this period 
and their position on the leading political issues. Give a careful discus- 
sion of the nation's financial legislation. Beginning with i860, give a 
careful discussion of tariff legislation in the United States. Give a careful 
discussion of corporations, trusts, and other combinations. Discuss the 
Treaty of Washington. Discuss the application of the principles of the 
Monroe Doctrine during this period. Discuss the growth of arbitration 
in domestic and international affairs. Discuss the Spanish-American 
War and its territorial results. Discuss the ways in which the form 
of government adopted by Congress for the territory secured from Spain 
tends to introduce new principles into the government of the United 
States. How may the results of the Spanish-American War modify the 
principle of American neutrality in European affairs? Discuss the history 
and importance of the Isthmian Canal. Give a careful discussion of the 
industrial growth of the nation during the forty-five years between i860 
and 1905. Discuss the growth of the West during this period. Discuss 
the changes in social conditions which have occurred since i860. Give 
a careful discussion of the growth of schools and education in the United 
States since i860. 

Subjects for Special Study and General Review 

(A careful study of the subjects which follow should constitute the 
review for the eighth-grade work in history and civics. The pupiL should 
have ample time for the study of these subjects, and should be per- 
mitted free access to available material when preparing these papers 
or written discussions.) Beginning with the Revolution, give a 
written discussion of the Growth of the United States in Territory 
and Population. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," 
give a written discussion of the Growth and Change in Industrial Con- 
ditions. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a writ- 
ten discussion of the Growth and Changes in Social Conditions. Be- 
ginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a written 



Questions and Topics 297 

discussion of the Growth and Changes in Government. Beginning with 
"Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the 
Growth and Changes in Religion. Beginning with "Institutional Life 
in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes 
in Education. Beginning with the "Critical Period," give a written 
discussion of the Growth and Changes in Financial Conditions and Finan- 
cial Affairs. Beginning with the "Critical Period," give a written dis- 
cussion of the Tariff Policy of the United States. Give a written dis- 
cussion of the Growth of Slavery in the United States. Give a written dis- 
cussion of the American Civil War, including its causes and the recon- 
struction of the seceded states. Beginning with Washington's first admin- 
istration, give a written discussion of the Foreign Relations of the United 
States, including the period of European Interference, the War with 
Mexico, and the Spanish-American War. Beginning with Washington's 
first administration, give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes 
in Political Parties and Political Methods. 



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